4— Missionaries, Migrants and the Manyika: The Invention of Ethnicity in Zimbabwe
1. Republic of Zambia, Report of the Special International Commission on the Assassination of Herbert Wiltshire Chitepo (Lusaka, 1976).
2. Ndabaningi Sithole, 'Open letter', 10 May 1976.
3. Sithole's announcement of 20 March 1977 is cited and heavily criticized in "The scourge of divisions and splits in the Liberation Movement', Zimbabwe Star, 3 July 1977.
4. M. Sithole, Zimbabwe. Struggles within the Struggle (Salisbury, 1979), pp.70-71.
5. C. Palley, Zimbabwe-Rhodesia. Should the Present Government be Recognised? (London, 1979).
6. C. Hitchins, 'Inequalities in Zimbabwe', Minority Rights Group Report No. 8, Dec. 1979, p.5.
7. C. Hamilton and J. Wright, "The making of the Lala: ethnicity, ideology and class-formation in a precolonial context', unpublished paper given at the University of the Witwatersrand History Workshop, January and February 1984, pp.1-2.
8. D. Beach, The Sbona and Zimbabwe, 900-1830 (London, 1980).
9. H. Holleman, 'Some "Shona" tribes of Southern Rhodesia', in E. Colson and M. Gluckman, eds., Seven Tribes of British Central Africa (Manchester, 1951), p.354.
10. H.H.K. Bhila, Trade and Politics in a Shona Kingdom: The Manyika and their Portuguese and African Neighbours, 1575-1902 (London, 1982).
11. Ibid ., pp.xiv, xvi, 4, 5.
12. Ibid., p.237.
10. H.H.K. Bhila, Trade and Politics in a Shona Kingdom: The Manyika and their Portuguese and African Neighbours, 1575-1902 (London, 1982).
11. Ibid ., pp.xiv, xvi, 4, 5.
12. Ibid., p.237.
10. H.H.K. Bhila, Trade and Politics in a Shona Kingdom: The Manyika and their Portuguese and African Neighbours, 1575-1902 (London, 1982).
11. Ibid ., pp.xiv, xvi, 4, 5.
12. Ibid., p.237.
13. National Archives of Zimbabwe (NAZ), Harare. NUA 2/1/5, Native Commissioner, Umtali, 'History of Umtassa's people', 18 Jan. 1904.
14. NAZ NUA 3/2/1, Native Commissioner, Inyanga, to Superintendent of Natives, Umtali, 2 April 1910.
15. NAZ NUA 3/2/1, Superintendent of Natives, Umtali to Chief Native Commissioner, 8 April 1910; minute by Chief Native Commissioner. break
16. NAZ NUA 3/2/2, Memorandum, 'Mayinini', 20 Dec. 1915.
17. F.W.T. Posselt, A Survey of the Native Tribes of Southern Rhodesia (Salisbury, 1927), pp.9-10.
18. These citations are taken from the original early chapter of Maurice Nyagumbo's draft autobiography, now in my possession. The material was omitted from the text published in M. Nyagumbo, With the People (London, 1980).
19. Letter from Archdeacon J. H. Upcher, Rusape, 10 Dec. 1902, Mashonaland Quarterly, No. 43, Feb. 1903, p.6.
20. 'Diary from the Memorial College and Industrial Native Mission', Mashonaland Quarterly, No. 27, Feb. 1899, p.17.
21. I. Hofmeyr, 'Building a nation from words: Afrikaans language, literature and "ethnic identity", 1902-1924', in S. Marks and S. Trapido, eds., The Politics of Race, Class and Nationalism in Twentieth Century South Africa (London and New York, 1987), pp.95-123.
22. For example, J. Fabian, 'Missions and the colonization of African languages: developments in the former Belgian Congo', Canadian Journal of African Studies, Vol. 17, No. 2 (1983).
23. Helen Springer's report, Official Record: AMEC Missionary Conference (henceforth Official Record ), 1905, p.27.
24. J.R. Gates's report. Official Record, 1911, p.15.
25. H.I. James's report, Official Record, 1917, p.28; J.R. Gates's report, Official Record, 1919, p.33.
26. 'Gospelizing the greatest continent' and 'And He said unto me write', African Advance, 2 April-June, 1918, No. 1.
27. E.H. Greeley's report, Minutes of the first session of the East Central Missionary Conference, 1901, p.48.
28. Testimony of Mark Kanogoiwa, Official Record, 1909, p.60.
29. E.H. Greeley's report. Official Record, 1910, pp.63-4.
30. E.H. Greeley's report, Minutes, 1924, pp.34-6.
31. C.M. Doke, Report on the Unification of the Shona Dialects (Hertford, 1931), pp.3-4.
32. E.H. Greeley's report, Official Record, 1909.
33. E.H. Greeley's report. Official Record, 1910, p.63.
34. E.H. Greeley's report, Official Record, 1916, p.29; E.H. Greeley's report, Minutes, 1925, p.43.
35. W.C. Gardiner's report, Official Journal, 1924, p.43.
36. H.N. Howard's report, Official Record, 1910, p.55.
37. 'The policy of the Rhodesia Conference of the Methodist in regard to facilities for the training of teachers', October 1953, Capital Box File, 'Education', Old Umtali Archives.
38. T.O. Ranger, 'Poverty and prophetism: religious movements in the Makoni district, Zimbabwe, 1929 to 1940', Henderson Seminar, University of Zimbabwe, April 1981.
39. T.O. Ranger, 'Religions and rural protests: Makoni district, Zimbabwe, 1900 to 1980', in J. Bak and G. Benecke, eds., Religion and Rural Revolt (Manchester, 1984). For Anglicanism in Makoni in particular, see T.O. Ranger, 'Literature and political economy: Arthur Shearly Cripps and the Makoni labour crisis of 1911', Journal of Southern African Studies, Vol. 9, No. 1 (1982), and T.O. Ranger, 'Medical science and Pentecost: the dilemma of Anglicanism in Africa', in T.O. Ranger and W. Shiels, eds., The Church and Healing (Oxford, 1982).
40. J.H. Upcher's letter, 25 Aug. 1893, Mashonaland Quarterly, No. 7, January 1894, p.l5.
41. NAZ PE 3/1/1, Douglas Pelly to his parents, 14 July 1892.
42. Ibid ., Douglas Pelly to his parents, 19 May 1893. break
41. NAZ PE 3/1/1, Douglas Pelly to his parents, 14 July 1892.
42. Ibid ., Douglas Pelly to his parents, 19 May 1893. break
43. "The Bishop's letter', 9 Jan. 1894, Mashonaland Quarterly, No. 8, April 1894, pp.5-6.
44. 'The Bishop's letter', 26 Nov. 1895, Mashonaland Quarterly, No. 15, February 1896, p.4.
45. NAZ PE 3/1/1, Douglas Pelly to his parents, 6 Dec. 1895.
46. NAZ PE 3/1/3, Douglas Pelly to Frank Ziqubu, 4 March 1897.
47. H.M. M'tobi's letter, 17 Aug. 1896, Letters for the Children, No 4, November 1896, pp.2-3.
48. Bishop Gaul's letter, 1 March 1897, Mashonaland Quarterly, No. 20, May 1897, p.4.
49. Ronald Alexander's letter, 15 Dec. 1898, Letters for the Children, No. 13, February 1899, p.3.
50. Ronald Alexander's journal, Letters for the Children, No. 19, August 1900, p.2.
51. A.S. Gibson's letter, 31 July 1904, Mashonaland Quarterly, No. 50, November 1904, pp.14-16.
52. W.J. Roxburgh's letter, 17 Sept. 1904, Mashonland Quarterly, No. 51, February 1905, p.10.
53. Edgar Lloyd, 'Mission of the Epiphany, Rusape', Mashonaland Quarterly, No. 52, August 1905, p.19.
54. Edgar Lloyd, 'Mission of the Epiphany, Rusape', Mashonaland Quarterly, No. 54, November 1905, p.21.
55. 'Letter from Canon Hallward', St Augustine's, 17 March 1914, Mashonaland Quarterly, No. 88, May 1914, p.9.
56. Ibid .
55. 'Letter from Canon Hallward', St Augustine's, 17 March 1914, Mashonaland Quarterly, No. 88, May 1914, p.9.
56. Ibid .
57. C. M. Doke, 'Report on the unification of the Shona dialects', Map 11. Doke wrote: 'Practically every large Mission in the country has extended its work outside the dialectical area in which it began, and in so doing has employed the medium of the first dialect for preaching, instruction and the use of books. . . . Perhaps the most convincing example of this is to be found in the spread of Manyika. Map 11 appended to this report shows convincingly how Manyika books, issued by the Church of England Mission from St Augustine's and Rusape, and by the Methodist Episcopal Mission from Old Umtali, are being used not only in the Manyika area but in practically every other Shona area as well.'
58. E.H. Etheridge's letter, 21 Sept. 1909, Mashonaland Quarterly, No. 70, November 1909, p.13.
59. Ibid .
58. E.H. Etheridge's letter, 21 Sept. 1909, Mashonaland Quarterly, No. 70, November 1909, p.13.
59. Ibid .
60. S.J. Christelow's letter, 3 Dec. 1914, Mashonaland Quarterly, No. 91, Feb. 1915, pp.10-11.
61. H.V. Oldfield's letter, Selukwe, 23 June 1914, Mashonaland Quarterly, No. 89, August 1914, p.18.
62. E.H. Etheridge's letter, 7 April 1916, Selukwe, Southern Rhodesia Quarterly, No. 96, May 1916, p.11.
63. 'Letter to the children', Selukwe, Southern Rhodesia Quarterly, No. 114, November 1920, p.10.
64. G. Broderick's letter, Bulawayo, 21 March 1917, Southern Rhodesia Quarterly, No. 100, May 1917, p.9.
65. B.H. Barnes, 'The progress of the new Shona orthography', Native Affairs Department Annual, No. 12 (1934), p.31.
66. Brother Aegidius, 'History of Triashill', n.d., Box 195, Jesuit Archives, Mount Pleasant, Harare, Zimbabwe.
67. Notes by Fr. W. Withnell, n.d., Box 195, Jesuit Archives.
68. Abbot Wolpert to Msgr. Sykes, 22 Aug. 1911, and Fr. M.A. Fleischer to Msgr. Sykes, 1 Oct. 1911, Box 260, File 5, Jesuit Archives.
69. Fr. C. Bert to Msgr. Sykes, 1 Oct. 1911, Box 260, File 5, Jesuit Archives. break
70. Fr. Withnell to Fr. Johanny, 30 Jan. 1932, Box 260, File 2; Withnell to Johanny, 19 May 1931, Box 260, File 3, Jesuit Archives.
71. Triashill teachers to Fr. C. Bert, 26 Feb. 1923, Box 260, File 1, Jesuit Archives.
72. Fr. Richartz to Pro-Prefect, 15 July 1922, Box 260, File 1, Jesuit Archives.
73. Fr. Withnell to Fr. Johanny, 16 June 1930, Box 260, File 3, Jesuit Archives.
74. Msgr. R.B. Brown's circular letter, 25 Aug. 1923, Box 13, Jesuit Archives.
75. Msgr. Brown to Fr. Johanny, 23 Sept. 1924, Box 195; entry for 4 Oct. 1924, Chronicle of Triashill; Fr. Ignatius Arnoz to Msgr. Brown, 4 and 12 Oct. 1914, Box 260, File 1, Jesuit Archives.
76. Msgr. Brown to 'Your Excellency', 8 Aug. 1927, Box 139, File, Jesuit Archives.
77. The fullest evidence of this imbroglio is to be found in Box 139, Jesuit Archives, which contains a useful summary by Fr. Rea, 'The Mariannhill dispute'.
78. Fr. O'Hea to Msgr. Brown, 20 March 1930, Box 195, Jesuit Archives.
79. Fr. O'Hea to Msgr. Brown, 11 Sept. 1930, Box 195, Jesuit Archives.
80. Ibid .
79. Fr. O'Hea to Msgr. Brown, 11 Sept. 1930, Box 195, Jesuit Archives.
80. Ibid .
81. Admin. Apost. to Deleg. Apost., 18 March 1931, Box 195, Jesuit Archives.
82. Ibid .
81. Admin. Apost. to Deleg. Apost., 18 March 1931, Box 195, Jesuit Archives.
82. Ibid .
83. O'Hea to Brown, 11 Sept. 1930, Box 195, Jesuit Archives.
84. Ibid .
83. O'Hea to Brown, 11 Sept. 1930, Box 195, Jesuit Archives.
84. Ibid .
85. H. Buck's letter, St Augustine's, Sept. 1914, Mashonaland Quarterly, No. 90, November 1914, p. l8.
86. T.A. O'Farrell's report. Official Journal, 1935, p.252.
87. R.C. Gates's report, Official Journal, 1935, p.247.
88. K. Hendricks, The Bend in the Road (Cape Town, n.d.), pp.12; 14; 93.
89. Annual Report, Inyanga, 1929.
90. C. Bullock, The Mashona and the Matabele (Cape Town, 1950), p.25.
91. For a vivid account of how a young Makoni migrant activated these networks, see M. Nyagumbo, With the People, passim.
92. Interview with Chief Tandi and elders, Tandi, 27 Feb. 1981.
93. NAZ S.1542.C6, N-Z, 1935-1938. Native Commissioner, Inyanga, to Chief Native Commissioner, 10 Aug. 1936.
94. NAZ NUA 3/2/1, Manyika workers to Native Commissioner, Umtali, 19 Sept., 1913.
95. NAZ S.1542.S12, 1936-1939. Roger Howman, 'An intensive survey of the history and social background of boxing among the natives of Salisbury', 29 June 1931.
96. NAZ S.138.22, 1930-1931. Native Commissioner, Inyanga, to Chief Native Commissioner, 20 Nov. 1930.
97. NAZ S.1542.S12, Superintendent of Natives, Bulawayo, to Chief Native Commissioner, 12 Aug. 1935.
98. NAZ S.138.22, 1930-1931, Superintendent of Natives, Bulawayo, to Chief Native Commissioner, 12 Dec. 1930.
99. Ibid., Native Commissioner, Inyati, to Superintendent of Natives, Bulawayo, 17 Dec. 1930; Native Commissioner, The Range, to Acting Chief Native Commissioner, 12 Dec. 1930.
98. NAZ S.138.22, 1930-1931, Superintendent of Natives, Bulawayo, to Chief Native Commissioner, 12 Dec. 1930.
99. Ibid., Native Commissioner, Inyati, to Superintendent of Natives, Bulawayo, 17 Dec. 1930; Native Commissioner, The Range, to Acting Chief Native Commissioner, 12 Dec. 1930.
100. Interview with Augustine Kwesha, St Xavier's, Manyika, 28 Feb. 1981.
101. Red notebook, 'Written by Patrick Kwesha. 1943. Johannesburg', in possession of Augustine Kwesha.
102. Chief Native Commissioner, Annual Report, 1925.
103. B. Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origins and Spread of Nationalism (London, 1983), pp.46-7.
104. R.H. Baker, St Augustine's, 28 Oct. 1931. Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, Annual Reports, 1931, USPG Archives, Westminster.
105. J. Peires, "The Lovedale Press: literature for the bantu revisited', History in Africa, Vol. 6 (1979), pp.160-1. break
106. NAZANG 16/11/1. Circular letter, Olive Lloyd, 19 March 1934.
107. B. Reitz to Miss N. Johnson, 19 Oct. 1947, Green File, 'Scripture Gift Mission', Old Umtali Archives.
108. Tribalism running down the Muzorewa's group', Zimbabwe Star, 6 Dec. 1975.
109. Ranger, 'Religions and rural protest'.
110. T.O. Ranger, Peasant Consciousness and Guerrilla War in Zimbabwe: A Comparative Study (London, 1984).
111. J. MacManus, 'The bullies in the bush' The Guardian, 8 Feb. 1980.
112. T.O. Ranger, 'The Church and war: holy men and rural communities in Zimbabwe, 1970-1980', in B. Shiels, ed., The Church and War (London, 1983).
113. 'Angola and Zimbabwe: the parallels', Zimbabwe Star, 17 Jan. 1976. break