1. J.J. Grotpeter, Historical Dictionary of Zambia (Metuchen, N.Y., 1979), p. 138. [BACK]

2. J. A. Fishman, 'An examination of the process and function of social stereotyping', Journal of Social Psychology, 43 (1956), p.28. Also M. Banton, Race Relations (New York, 1967), pp.299-303; D.T. Campbell, 'Stereotypes and the perception of group differences', American Psychologist, 22 (1967), pp.821-25; R.A. LeVine and D.T. Campbell, Ethnocentrism: Theories of Conflict, Ethnic Attitudes and Group Behavior (New York, 1972), pp.156-75, 205-23; A.G. Miller, 'Historical and contemporary perspectives on stereotyping' in A.G. Miller, ed., In the Eye of the Beholder (New York, 1982), pp.1-40. [BACK]

3. C.M. Doke, The Lambas of Northern Rhodesia (London, 1931), p.22. [BACK]

4. F.J.M. de Lacerda e Almeida, Travessia da Africa (Lisbon, 1936), pp.239-40; also R.F. Burton's translation from his The Lands of Cazembe (London, 1873) in Doke, The Lambas, p.30. Lacerda's report is confirmed by Story LXXXVIII and Aphorisms 592, 806, 1176 and 1529 in C.M. Doke, Lamba Folk-Lore, American Folk-Lore Society, Vol. 20 (New York, 1927), pp. 166-69, 370, 403, 452. [BACK]

5. A.F.F. da Silva Porto, Silva Pôrto e a Travessia do Continente Africano (Lisbon, 1938), pp.115-23. For a broad overview of Ilamba in the nineteenth century, see A. Roberts, 'The age of tradition (A.D. 1500 to 1850) ' in B.M. Fagan, ed., A Short History of Zambia (London, 1966), pp.103-22; J. Vansina, Kingdoms of the Savanna (Madison & Milwaukee, 1966), pp.227-35; Zambia National Archives (ZNA) KSN 2/1. District Officer Jones's 1932 'History of the Lima Chiefs' in the Ndola District Notebook, Vol. 2, pp.304-6; and Doke, The Lambas, pp.35-48. [BACK]

6. H. Delvaux, L'Occupation du Katanga, 1891-1900: Notes et Souvenirs du Seul Survivant (Supplément á L'Essor du Congo, Elisabethville: Imbelco, 12 Aug. 1950), pp.48-54; E. Verdick, Les Premiers Jours au Katanga, 1890-1903 (Brussels, 1952, pp.74-77, 119-23; J.E. Stephenson, Mohammedan Early Days in the Copperbelt of Northern Rhodesia (Lusaka, 1972), pp.33-41. [BACK]

7. J. Thomson, 'To Lake Bangweolo and the unexplored region of British Central Africa', Geographical Journal, 1 (1893), pp.97-121; M. Faber, "The Mshiri-Thomson meeting of November 1890: a note', African Social Research, 12 (1971), pp.129-43; B.S. Krishnamurthy, 'The Thomson treaties and Johnston's certificate of claim', African Social Research, 8 (1969), pp.588-601.

On Lewanika's claims to tributary sovereignty, see L.H. Gann, The Birth of a Plural Society (Manchester, 1958), pp.215-20; J.E. Stephenson, Chirupula's Tale (London, 1937), pp.24-26, 133-37; Public Record Office, London (PRO) C.O. 795/17-18, 1926 Line of Rail Native Reserves Commission Report, Evidence and Correspondence, Vol. 1, pp.226, 306-11, and Vol. 2, pp.105-08, 119, 169. [BACK]

8. On village depopulation, see H. Capello and R. Ivens, De Angola á Contra-Costa continue

(Lisbon, 1886), p.157; Delvaux, L'Occupation du Katanga, p.37; Doke, Lamba Folk-Lore, p.542; Doke, The Lambas, pp.41-43; C.M. Doke, Trekkiag in South-Central Africa, 1913-1919 (Roodepoort, Transvaal, 1975), pp.166-67; R. Marchal, 'Le tribunal des Balamba', Bulletin de Centre d'Etude des Problèmes Sociaux Indigènes, 2 (1946-47), p.86; J.M. Moubray, In South Central Africa (London, 1912), pp.101-2; G.E. Tilsley, Dan Crawford: Missionary and Pioneer in Central Africa (London & Edinburgh, 1929), p.415; Verdick, Les Premiers Jours, pp.119-23.

On the 1890 locust famine and smallpox epidemic, and the 1892-94 rinderpest epizoötic, see A. Delcommune, Vingt Années de Vie Africaines, Vol. 2 (Brussels, 1922), pp.326-32; Delvaux, L'Occupation du Katanga, pp.36, 42; Doke, The Lambas, p.43; Faber, 'The Mshiri-Thomson meeting', p.135; L. Lambo, 'Etude sur les Balala', Bulletin des Jurisdictions Indigènes et du Droit Coutumiers Congolais, 14, 8-10 (1946), p.323; A. Roberts, A History of Zambia (London, 1976), p.171; Tilsley, Dan Crawford, p.227. [BACK]

9. E. Bourgeois, La Promotion d'un Pays en Voiede Développement: Problème Délicat et Difficile, CEPSI Memoir No. 24 (Elisabethville, 1965), pp.23, 28-29, 34. Translation by author. [BACK]

10. J. van Waelvelde, 'Problàmes d'acculturation chez les Lambas de la chefferie de Kaponda', Problèmes Sociaux Congolais, 82 (1968), p. 161. Translation by author. [BACK]

11. Verdick, Les Premiers Jours, p.123. Author's translation. [BACK]

12. Mr. le Substitut Hoomeart, 'Rapport sur les Causes Principales de Désertion parmi les Travailleurs Noirs', Elisabethville, 22 Nov. 1913, p. 7 (in Jean-Luc Vellut, Documents du Zaire Colonial, Fiche 1454C-1460D). Also Comptes-Rendus, Comité Régional de la Province du Katanga, Avr. 1924, pp.24-25; Fév. 1925, pp.14-15; Avr. 1925, pp.10-13; Avr. 1933, pp.149-51; R.R. Sharp, Early Days in Katanga (Bulawayo, 1956), pp.129, 133; J-L. Vellut, 'Rural poverty in western Shaba, c. 1890-1930', in R. Palmer and N. Parsons, eds., The Roots of Rural Poverty in Central and Southern Africa (London, 1977), p.307. [BACK]

13. Doke, The Lambas, pp.47-48; Doke, Trekking, pp.96, 127; ZNA KSN 2/1, Ndola District Notebook, Vol. 1, pp.151-56; Stephenson, Chirupula's Tale, pp.63, 87, 105, 181-82, 188-92, 216, 220-23, 227-36. On 'Chirupula' Stephenson himself, see Doke, Trekking, pp.95-98; K.S. Rukavina, Jungle Pathfinder (New York, 1951); M. Wright, 'Chirupula Stephenson and Copperbelt history: a note', African Social Research, 14 (1972), pp.311-17; Stephenson's testimony to the 1926 Native Reserves Commission in PRO, C.O. 795/17-18, Reserves Commission, VoL 2, pp. 95-119; ZNA HM 23/ST/1/1/1-4, 'J.E. Stephenson Correspondence'. The Public Record Office, London, in addition, is said to have many files of Stephenson's correspondence. [BACK]

14. 'Kafue District Report' and 'Report of Civil Commissioner P.H. Selby, 1900-02' in Reports on the Administration of Rhodesia, 1900-02 (London, 1903), pp.411-12, 419. [BACK]

15. B. Fetter, 'La création d'un colonat Européen et la situation des Africains au Katanga, 1916-1930', Etudes Congolaises, 11 (1968), pp.51-52; Comptes-Rendus, Comité Régional de la Province du Katanga, Avr. 1921, Anexe 22, Avr. 1924, p.4; Avr. 1925, pp.14-17; Avr. 1926, pp. 210, 216-19; F. Grevisse, 'Le centre extra-coutumier d'Elisabethville', Bulletin du Centre d'Etude des Problèmes Sociaux Indigènes, 15 (1931), pp.151-6. [BACK]

16. Roan Consolidated Mines, Zambia's Mining Industry: The First 50 Years (Ndola, 1978), pp.22-25; PRO C.O. 795/17-18, Reserves Commission, Vol. 1, pp.75-76.

17. Ibid ., pp.44, 150-51; Vol. 2, pp.2-6, 8-9, 14-16, 42-3, 58-9, 68-9; W. Allan, Studies in African Land Usage in Northern Rhodesia, Rhodes-Livingstone Paper No. 15 (London, 1949), pp.26, 42. [BACK]

16. Roan Consolidated Mines, Zambia's Mining Industry: The First 50 Years (Ndola, 1978), pp.22-25; PRO C.O. 795/17-18, Reserves Commission, Vol. 1, pp.75-76.

17. Ibid ., pp.44, 150-51; Vol. 2, pp.2-6, 8-9, 14-16, 42-3, 58-9, 68-9; W. Allan, Studies in African Land Usage in Northern Rhodesia, Rhodes-Livingstone Paper No. 15 (London, 1949), pp.26, 42. [BACK]

18. ZNA KSN 3/1/2, Luangwa District, Ndola Sub-District Annual Reports, Years Ending 31 Mar. 1925 and 31 Mar. 1926; PRO C.O. 795/17-18, Reserves continue

Commission, Vol. 1, p.312; Vol. 2, pp.23, 31-4, 40, 46, 53-4, 82-3, 92, 117-18. [BACK]

19. The Seba and Temba peoples of Katanga, living nearest Elisabethville and the mines, became domestic servants, market gardeners and labourers for private urban firms. The Katanga Lamba worked instead as woodcutters, porters or labourers for the railway, prospecting parties or private firms in Sakania. The Rhodesian Lamba worked with mineral prospecting and railway construction teams, served as porters during the German East African campaign of World War I, and as gardeners and domestic servants thereafter. [BACK]

20. Compte-Rendu, Comité Régional du Katanga, March 1938, pp.35-37, 50-51. [BACK]

21. Roan Consolidated Mines, Zambia's Mining Industry, p.32; P. Harries-Jones, 'The tribes in the towns' in W.V. Brelsford, The Tribes of Zambia (Lusaka, 1965), p.125. Also Doke, Lamba Folk-Lore, pp.246-69; Doke, The Lambas, pp.318-19, 352-3; A. C. Fisher, '40 Years of medicine on the Copperbelt', Horizon (Salisbury), 11 (1969), p.4-9; L.M. Rodger, 'The development of medical and health services at Roan Antelope (Part 1) ', Northern Rhodesia Journal, 5 (1962), pp. 135-41; F. Spearpoint, 'The African native and the Rhodesian copper mines'. Supplement to the Journal of the Royal Africa Society, 36 (1937), pp.3-4; J.E. Stephenson, 'The Luanshya snake', Northern Rhodesia Journal, 6 (1965), pp.13-16; Sir M. Watson, African Highway: The Battle for Health in Central Africa (London, 1953), pp.13-14, 92-3. [BACK]

22. PRO C.O. 795/17-18, Reserves Commission, Vol. 1, pp.75-80, 312; Vol. 2, pp.33, 82-3. [BACK]

23. A.J. Cross, Twenty Years in Lambaland (London & Edinburgh, 1925), p.6; H. Masters and W. Masters, In Wild Rhodesia: A Story of Missionary Enterprise and Adventure (London, 1920), pp.121, 181, 214, 224; J.M. Springer, The Heart of Central Africa: Mineral Wealth and Missionary Opportunity (Cincinnati and New York, 1909), pp.81-5; PRO C.O. 795/17-18, Reserves Commission, Vol. 1, pp.45, 149; Vol. 2, pp.9, 40, 53-4, 76.

Rev. and Mrs John M. Springer (above), Methodist Episcopal missionaries from America, visited the South African Baptists at Kafulafuta Mission in 1907 while on their way from Bulawayo to Benguela. Springer captured much of his hosts' disappointment with the Lamba, writing of them, 'A more degenerate, hopeless lot of people it would be hard to find' (p.82). Clement Doke, to his credit, was the first Baptist at Kafulafuta Mission to challenge this view of the 'degenerate' Lamba: 'From the moral point of view I do not consider the Lambas to be degraded as a people. Their standard of morality certainly differs from that which we have inherited from centuries of Christian precept, but the standard which they have is not low, nor is its observance by the people lax' ( The Lambas, p.30). [BACK]

24. ZNA KSN 3/1/2, Ndola Sub-District Annual Report, Year Ending 31 Dec. 1926, pp.12-13. It is, I think, no accident that these remarks so closely parallel 'Chirupula' Stephenson's August 1926 testimony to the Native Reserves Commission (PRO C.O. 795/17-18, Vol. 2,pp.117-18). [BACK]

25. M.C. Young and B. Jewsiewicki, personal communications; B.G. Schoepf, 'Unintended consequences and structural predictability: man and biosphere in Zaire's Lufira valley', Human Organization, 42 (1983), p.364; B. Siegel, 'Comments on Schoepf's "Unintended consequences and structural predictability" ', Human Organization, 43 (1984), pp.185-7; Bourgeois, La Promotion d'un Pays, p.23; Lambo, 'Etude sur les Balala', pp.239, 326. [BACK]

26. J. C. Mitchell, The Kalela Dance, Rhodes-Livingstone Paper No. 27 (Manchester, 1956), esp. p.27; A.L. Epstein, "The network and urban social organization' (1961) in J.C. Mitchell, ed., Social Networks and Urban Situations (Manchester, 1969), p.102; A.L. Epstein, Ethos and Identity: Three Studies in Ethnicity (London, 1978), pp.25, 158n. [BACK]

27. J.C. Mitchell, 'Distance, transportation and urban involvement in Zambia', in A. Southall, ed., Urban Anthropology (London, 1973), p.295; J.C. Mitchell, 'The continue

distribution of African labour by area of origin on the copper mines of Northern Rhodesia', Rhodes-Livingstone Journal, 15 (1954), pp.30, 32. [BACK]

28. Mitchell, The Kalela Dance, pp.11-14; A.L. Epstein, 'Linguistic innovation and culture on the Copperbelt', Southwestern Journal of Anthropology, 15 (1959), pp.235-53; A.L. Epstein, Urbanization and Kinship: The Domestic Domain on the Copperbelt of Zambia, 1950-1956 (London & New York, 1981), pp. 56-7, 259-60. [BACK]

29. A.E. Beech, 'Early days around the Copperbelt', Northern Rhodesia Journal, 2 (1953), pp.47-8; S.J. Chibanza, Kaonde History, Central Bantu Historical Texts, I, Part II, Rhodes-Livingstone Communication No. 22 (Lusaka, 1961), pp.78-81; E.A.M. Harris, 'A harvest to be reaped: Chisalala Mission Station, Northern Rhodesia', Pioneer (South Africa General Mission), 27 (1914), pp.149-51; W.M.J. van Binsbergen, 'Religious change and the problem of evil in Western Zambia [long version] ' in his Religious Change in Zambia: Exploratory Studies (London & Boston, 1981), pp.147-50; Doke, Lamba Folk-Lore, pp.276-7; Doke, The Lambas, pp.30-31, 180, 276; Stephenson, Chirupula's Tale, pp.11-15.

On Jeremiah Gondwe and his Watchtower Movement's role in Ilamba's millenarian tradition, see Lambaland (quarterly record of the South African Baptist Missionary Society, Kafulafuta Mission, 1916-56), 8 (July 1918), 37 (Oct. 1925), 76 (Oct. 1935), 88 (Oct. 1938), 114 (Jan. 1948), 133 (Jan. 1953); R.I. Rotberg, The Rise of Nationalism in Central Africa (Cambridge, Ma., 1965), pp.140-43; S. Cross, 'A prophet not without honour: Jeremiah Gondwe' in C.Allen and R.W. Johnson, eds., African Perspectives (Cambridge, 1970), pp.171-84; S. Cross, 'The Watchtower Movement in South Central Africa, 1908-1945', unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Oxford University, 1973, pp.271-84. [BACK]

30. Epstein, Urbanization and Kinship, pp. l58n. 256. [BACK]

31. LeVine and Campbell, Ethnocentrism, pp. 156-60. [BACK]

32. ZNA KSN 3 1/4, Ndola Sub-District Annual Report, Year Ending 31 Dec. 1932. [BACK]

33. A partial record of disease and food shortages among the Rhodesian Lamba runs as follows: 1901-02 smallpox; 1907 locusts; 1910 drought; 1917 'kaffirpox' ( akamabokoshi ); 1918-20 Spanish influenza and food shortages; 1922-23 drought and famine; 1926-27 'kaffirpox', influenza and famine; 1929-30 smallpox and food shortages; 1932 'kaffirpox', influenza and locusts; 1934-35 severe locusts; 1940-41 severe famine; 1945-46 smallpox and food shortages; 1948 drought; 1950 drought, sorghum rust and famine.

The principal references here are Lambaland, 3-122 (Apr. 1917-Apr. 1950); ZNA KS 3/1 1-4, Ndola Sub-District Annual Reports, Years Ending 31 Mar. 1920-26 and 31 Dec. 1926-32; KSN 3/1/5, Ndola District Annual Reports on Native Affairs, 1933-36; SEC 2/1101-1109, Ndola District Tour Reports, 1931-51. [BACK]

34. Compte-Rendu, Comité Régional de la Province du Katanga, Avr. 1933, p.148. Author's translation. [BACK]

35. J.L. Keith, 'Human geography report: Ndola District, Central Province, Northern Rhodesia', unpublished 1935 MS, British Association of Geographers, p. 6. [BACK]

36. Province d'Elisabethville, Territoire d'Elisabethville, Rapport Annuel, Service des Affaires Indigenes et de la Main-d'Oeuvre, 1935, p.9. Author's translation. [BACK]

37. Letter from Mr. Ziegler de Ziegleck, Commissaire de District du Haut-Katanga to Chef de Province d'Elisabethville, 30 Sep. 1937, 'Main-d'Oeuvre en Territoire d'Elisabethville' (in Vellut, Documents, Fiche 1114C-E); Rapport de Route de 1'Administrateur Territorial Joset G. en Chefferie de Katala, Mars-Aw. 1938, pp. 25-27 (in Vellut, Documents, Fiche 953G-957C). [BACK]

38. Northern Rhodesia, Department of Agriculture, Annual Report for the Year 1943 (Lusaka, 1944), pp.5-6; Allan, African Land Usage, p. 35. [BACK]

39. Grevisse, 'Le centre extra-coutumier d'Elisabethville', pp.159-64; Rapport, Joset G., pp.22-24; ZNA KSN 3/1/5, Ndola District, Native Affairs Annual Report for 1935, P.1. break [BACK]

41. Northern Rhodesia, Native Affairs Annual Report for 1935 (Lusaka, 1936), pp.19-20. [BACK]

42. Northern Rhodesia, African Affairs Annual Report for 1952 (Lusaka, 1953), pp.11-12. [BACK]

43. Census figures from the 1948-56 Ndola District Tour Reports record some 17 to 25 per cent of the taxable males in those Lamba-Lima Native Reserve chieftaincies nearest the towns (Lamba chiefs Nkana and Mushili, and Lima chiefs Malembeka and Kalunkumya) were engaged at home in either 'agricultural production other than subsistence' or 'other economic production or distribution'. The 1948-52 Tour Reports suggest that another 50 to 60 per cent of the taxable males from chiefs Nkana's, Mushili's and Malembeka's areas were away at work, as well as 40 to 50 per cent of the taxable males from Lima chiefs Kalunkumya's and Lesa's areas, further to the south. Percentages are calculated from the census records in ZNA SEC 2/1104-1114, Ndola District Tour Reports nos. 1 & 8 of 1948, 3, 8 & 10 of 1949, 9 & 12 of 1950, 1, 2, & 3 of 1951, 3, 5 & 8 of 1952, 1 of 1954, 1 of 1955, and 2 of 1956. [BACK]

44. District Commissioner's comments on the Lamba-Lima Native Authority in ZNA SEC 2/1109, Ndola District Tour Report No. 3 of 1951. [BACK]

45. A.L. Epstein, 'Unconscious factors in the response to social crisis: a case study from Central Africa', The Psychoanalytic Study of Society, 8 (1979), pp.4-5; Epstein, Urbanization and Kinship, pp.144n; Roberts, History of Zambia, pp.208-11. [BACK]

46. Allan, African Land Usage, p.38. [BACK]

47. Epstein, "The network and urban social organization', p.105; Epstein, Urbanization and Kinship, pp.269-70. [BACK]

48. Mitchell, TheKalela Dance, pp.6-7; Arnold L. Epstein, personal communication. [BACK]

49. Mitchell's survey data are cited in Epstein, Ethos and Identity, pp.132-33. [BACK]

50. A.J. Cross, Twenty Years in Lambaland, pp.12, 29-31; Masters and Masters, In Wild Rhodesia, pp.199-208; ZNA KSN 3/1/2-3, Ndola Sub-District Annual Reports, Years Ending 31 Dec. 1926 and 31 Dec. 1929; ZNA KSN 2/1, Ndola District Notebook, Vol. 1, pp.215-20. [BACK]

51. Mitchell, The Kalela Dance, pp. 14, 45; J. C. Mitchell and A. L. Epstein, 'Occupational prestige and social status among urban Africans in Northern Rhodesia', Africa, 29 (1959), pp.22-39. [BACK]

52. G. Chauncey, 'The locus of reproduction: women's labour in the Zambian Copperbelt, 1927-1953', Journal of Southern African Studies, 7 (1981), pp.135-64; Epstein, Urbanization and Kinship, pp.264-70; Harries-Jones, 'The tribes in the towns', pp.134-35. [BACK]

53. Chauncey, 'The locus of reproduction', p. 149. [BACK]

54. ZNA SEC 2/1109-1110, Ndola District Tour Reports Nos. 3 of 1951 and 3 of 1952. [BACK]

55. Epstein, Ethos and Identity, pp. 12-13, 158n; Epstein, Urbanization and Kinship, pp.126, 251, 259-60, 284-85, 311-12, 318, 322-23. [BACK]

56. Mitchell, TheKalela Dance, pp.7-8. [BACK]

57. LeVine and Campbell, Ethnocentrism, pp.156-60. [BACK]

58. By 1939, the year before the Lamba famine, only 24 of 152 recognized lease holdings for European farmers were even occupied, while as late as 1954 at least 85 per cent of the lands under European fanners, thanks to termitaria, remained uncleared and unstumped. See A.T. Wilson, et al ., Department of Agriculture, Report of a Soil and Land-Use Survey, Copperbelt, Northern Rhodesia (Lusaka, 1956), pp. 1-2, 42. [BACK]

59. E. Colson, 'The assimilation of aliens among the Zambian Tonga' in R. Cohen and J. Middleton, eds., From Tribe to Nation (Scranton, Penn., 1970), pp.35-55; J.A. Hellen, Rural Economic Development in Zambia, 1890-1964, Afrika-Studien No. 32 (Munich, 1968), p.164; R.J. Mutsau, "The Shona and Ndebele settlements in Kabwe rural area, 1953-63' in R. Palmer, ed., Zambian Land and Labour Studies, Vol. 1 continue

(Lusaka: National Archives of Zambia, 1973), pp.41-47; R.S. Canter, 'National and international events and the incidence of ethnic conflict: Lenje-Rhodesian relations in Zambia', Working Papers in African Studies No. 3 (Boston, Boston University, 1976). [BACK]

60. These affective sentiments and material interests, the subjective-internal and objective-external dimensions of ethnicity, and these reriprocally invidious ethnic stereotypes are all examined at greater length in Brian V, Siegel's Ph.D. dissertation in anthropology. Farms or Gardens: Ethnicity and Enterprise on the Rural Zambian Copperbelt (Ann Arbor, 1984), pp.250-367. [BACK]

61. Banton, Race Relations, p.300. break [BACK]