The Creation of Tribalism in Southern Africa "nsd0e2188"

3— Exclusion, Classification and Internal Colonialism: The Emergence of Ethnicity Among the Tsonga-Speakers of South Africa

1. For some excellent work within the modernization paradigm, which sees cultural homogeneity as extending from core to periphery, see E. Weber, Peasants into Frenchmen: the Modernization of Rural France, 1870-1914 (London, 1977); G. Eley, 'Nationalism and social history', Social History, Vol. 6, No. 1 (1981); and T. Zeldin, France 1848-1945, 2 vols. (Oxford, 1973 and 1977). I have been particularly influenced by H. Wolpe, 'The theory of internal colonialism: the South African case', in I. Oxaal et al., eds., Beyond the Sociology of Development (London, 1975); J.U. Garang, 'On economics and regional autonomy', in D.M. Wai, ed., The Southern Sudan: The Problem of National Integration (London, 1973); M. Hartwig, 'Capitalism and Aborigines: the theory of internal colonialism and its rivals', in E.K. Wheelwright and K. Buckley, eds., The Political Economy of Australian Capitalism, Vol. 3 (Sydney, continue

1978; M. Hechter, Internal Colonialism (London, 1975); W. Sloan, 'Ethnicity or imperialism?', Comparative Studies in Sociology and History, 1979; and especially by J. Saul, The dialectics of class and tribe', in his State and Revolution in East Africa (New York, 1979). The classic works remain V.I. Lenin, The Development of Capitalism in Russia (Moscow, 1956), pp.172-7, 363ff. and A. Gramsci, "The southern question', in his The Modern Prince and Other Questions (New York, 1957). [BACK]

2. P. Harries, 'Ethnicity, history and ethnic frontiers: the Ingwavuma district in the 19th century', Journal of Natal and Zululand History (1983) and 'Slavery, social incorporation and surplus extraction: the nature of free and unfree labour in south-east Africa', Journal of African History, Vol. 22 (1981), pp. 309-30. [BACK]

3. P. Harries, 'Labour migration from Mozambique to South Africa', unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of London, 1983, Chapters 7 and 8. [BACK]

4. H.A. Junod, "The Ba-Thonga of the Transvaal', South African Association for the Advancement of Science, Vol. 3 (1905), pp.229-31, 327; A. Grandjean, La Mission Romande (Lausanne, 1917), p.59. [BACK]

5. A history of these migrations has yet to be written, but see J.D. Krige, 'Traditional origins and tribal relations of the Sotho of the northern Transvaal', Bantu Studies, Vol. 11 (1937); Junod, 'Ba-Thonga', pp.229-31, 237; idem, Life of a South African Tribe (London, 1927), Vol. I, pp.17, 28; Vol. II, pp.169, 584-6; B.H. Dicke, "The Northern Transvaal Voortrekkers', South African Annual Year Book (henceforth SAAYB ) (1953), pp.138-41; Grandjean, La Mission, pp.59-60, 77; N.J. van Warmelo, A Preliminary Survey of the Bantu Tribes of South Africa (Pretoria, 1935), p.91; A. Nachtigal, 'Beitrage zur Geschichter der Knopneuse', in Tagebuch, band 2, vol. I (University of South Africa Archives), pp.237, 277-84. [BACK]

6. Archivo Historica Ultramarino, Lisbon. Governors' Correspondence, Pasta 19, GLM to GGM, 13 Aug. 1862, encl. in GGM to MSMU, 14 Oct. 1862; A. Merensky, Erinnerungen aus dem Missionleben (Berlin, 1899), p.90; J.A. Albasini letterbooks, Albasini to GLM, 2 April 1862; Nachtigal, Tagebuch, band 2, I, 280; War Office, Native Tribes of the Transvaal (Pretoria, 1905). [BACK]

7. J.B. de Vaal, 'Die rol van João Albasini in die geskiedenis van die Transvaal', SAAYB (1953); T.A, SN.1.A., Oscar Dahl, 'Estimate of able-bodied armed men in the Zoutpansberg, 1879'; Interviews with Chiefs Chevane, Nqcapu and Lucas Siweya, and headman Maswanganyi, April 1979; and with Edmund Mabyalane, February 1981. [BACK]

8. T.A. SS.37.R4298/61, Albasini to President, 2 March 1861; St.V. Erskine, MS of 1869 in Royal Geographic Society, London, p.27; Berliner Missionsberichte (1863), p.7; T.A. SS.1240.R3129/86, encl. in N.C., Spelonken, to Superintendent of Native Affairs, 24 Aug. 1884; T.A. SN.1.A, Dahl, 'Estimate'; T.A. SN.2, Report of [ sic ] the chiefs and population in the northern part of the district of Zoutpansberg; BMSAS, Vol. 6, No. LXIV (1886), pp.13-14, and Vol. 8, No. XIVC (1891), p.192; P. Berthoud, Lettres Missionaires (Lausanne, 1900), pp.246-7. [BACK]

9. See Immigrants Regulation Act No. 22 of 1913. [BACK]

10. Swiss Mission Archive, Lausanne, Switzerland (SMA) 10.8.B, Paul Berthoud to Council, 22 Dec. 1877; Zoutpansberg Review, 7 Sept. 1896. [BACK]

11. N.J. van Warmelo, 'Grouping and ethnic history', in I. Schapera, ed., The Bantu-Speaking Tribes of South Africa (London, 1934), pp.56, 63. [BACK]

12. St. V. Erskine, MS of 1869 in Royal Geographic Society, London, p.45; A.T. Bryant, Olden Times in Zululand and Natal (London, 1929), pp.286-7; C.M. Doke and B. Vilikazi, Zulu-English Dictionary (Johannesburg, 1972). [BACK]

13. The Maputo (Mabudu) used the term with reference to the senior (Tembe) branch of their clan. It was also used by the Gaza Nguni in the Lower Zambezi river valley. C. de B. Webb and J. Wright, eds., The James Stuart Archive, Vol. 2 (Durban, 1979), p.143; A. Isaacman, The Tradition of Resistance in Mozambique (London, 1976), p.xxiv, n.2. break [BACK]

14. Junod, Life, Vol. 1, p.l5; Bryant, Olden Times, p.83. [BACK]

15. The adoption of this term has been strongly criticized as it represents another soundshift in the terms /ronga/ and /tonga/ ('easterners'). H. Berthoud, 'Quelques remarques sur la famille des langues bantous et sur la langue Tzonga en particulier', in Xe Congrès International des Orientalistes (1894); Junod, Life, Vol. 1, pp.16-17. [BACK]

16. The word 'mulandi' was used by the people of the Delagoa Bay area to designate all blacks, irrespective of their origins. This term was then adopted by the Portuguese as 'Landim' and was used variously to describe the black peoples in the neighborhood of Lorenco Marques, blacks living south of the Sabi river, displaced Nguni groups, Mozambican soldiers of African extraction serving in the Portuguese army, and blacks in general. C. Montez, 'As racas indigenas de Mocambique', Mocambique, No. 23 (1940), pp. 53-66; Nunes to GGM, 4 Oct. 1830 in F. Santana, Documentacao avulsa Mocambicana (Lisbon, 1967), pp.ii, 222; F.L. Barnard, A Three Year Cruise in the Mozambique Channel (London, 1848); pp.165, 261; E.C. Tabler, ed., The Zambesi Papers of Richard Thornton , Vol. 1 (London, 1963), pp.53-5, 57, 69; H.A. Junod, Grammaire et Manuel de Conversation Ronga (Lausanne, 1896), p.4-5. [BACK]

17. East Coast traders were also called 'Tcheke' because they had discarded skins for cotton clothing. In the Phalaborwa area eastern hunters were called 'Mabono'. North Sotho-speakers referred to the Gwamba as 'Koapas' because of a sound-shift and sometimes used the term 'Toka', the northern Sotho sound-shifted form of 'Tonga'.

Many Chopi, Shona and Tonga chiefdoms also tattooed their faces. This custom had largely died out by the 1880s and was never practised by the Tsonga-speaking immigrants from the southern Delagoa Bay region. Junod, Life, Vol. 1, pp.178-80; Nachtigal, Tagebuch, band 2, 1, p.281. For the different terms, see P. Berthoud, 'Grammatical note on the Gwamba language in South Africa', Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Vol. 16 (1884), pp.45-7. [BACK]

18. See P. Harries, 'The roots of ethnicity: discourse and the politics of language construction in southeast Africa', African Affairs, No. 346 (1988), pp.25-52. [BACK]

19. They were particularly influenced by the work of two Sotho evangelists, who had translated prayers and songs into Gwamba before their arrival, and by two assistants known only as Zambiki and Mbizana. M.C. Bill, ed., Tsonga Bibliography, 1883-1983 (Braamfontein, 1983), p.l2. [BACK]

20. Sipelele si sironga: abécédaire et livre de lecture en dialect Ronga (Lausanne, 1894); Grammaire et Manuel de Conversation Ronga (Lausanne, 1896); Les Chants et les contes des Ba-Ronga (Lausanne, 1897); 'Les Baronga', Bulletin de la Société Neuchâteloise de Géographie, Vol. 10 (1898). [BACK]

21. For the debate between Junod and Berthoud, see S.M.A. 1255/B, H. Berthoud, 'Rapport sur l'expedition à Magude, 1885', 'Rapport sur l'expedition chez Gungunyana, 1891', and 'Quelques remarques sur la famille des langues Bantou'; 1254/B, H. Junod, 'Étude comparative du shiGouamba et du shiRonga', March 1893; H. Junod, Thonga, Gouamba, Djonga, Ronga', BMSAS, No. 114 (1894); Ilse Hone, "The history of the development of Tsonga orthography', unpublished manuscript, 1981. [BACK]

22. SMA. 1255/B, 'Rapport sur l'expedition à Magude, 1885'. [BACK]

23. H-P. Junod, 'Reflexions sur l'origine, la croissance et l'état actuel de la langue et de la nation Tsonga', in W.J.G. Möhlig, F. Rottland and B. Heine, Zur Sprachgeschichte und Ethnohistorie in Afrika (Berlin, 1977), p.91; Bill, Tsonga Bibliography, p.10. [BACK]

24. 'The Ba-Thonga', p.229. [BACK]

25. Junod, Life, Vol. 2, p.153. [BACK]

26. Berthoud, 'Grammatical Note on the Gwamba Language', p-47. [BACK]

27. Junod, Life, Vol. 1, pp.14-15, 356. For a socio-political analysis of African language construction, see Harries, 'The roots of ethnicity', passim . break [BACK]

28. H.A. Stayt, The Ba Venda (London, 1931), p.55; War Office, Native Tribes, p.133; W.L. Distant, A Naturalist in the Transvaal (London, 1892), p.101; E. Thomas, 'Le Bokaha', But. Soc. Neuchâteloise de Geogr ., (1894), 164-7; P. Berthoud, Lettres Missionaires (Lausanne, 1900), p.268. [BACK]

29. Junod, Life, Vol. 2, p.622; War Office, Native Tribes, p.131; see also Manuel Simões Alberto, 'Contribuição para o Estudo Antropologico dos "Tongas do Sul" ', Bol. Soc. Estudos Moc ., Vol. 25, No. 92 (1955); R. Dart, 'Racial origins', in Schapera, ed., Bantu-Speaking Tribes, pp.23-4, 27. [BACK]

30. Stayt, The Bavenda, pp.188-9; Junod, Life, Vol. 1, pp.71-2, 254, 292; E. Krige, The Realm of the Rainqueen (Oxford, 1943), p.88-94, 121; Thomas, 'Le Bokaha', p.161. [BACK]

31. Probably the leading, but by no means only, example of this form of 'ethno-history' is to be found in M. Wilson and L. Thompson, eds., Oxford History of South Africa, Vol. 1 (London, 1969). [BACK]

32. G. Theal, History of South Africa since 1795, Vol. 4 (London, 1908), p.476; E. Walker, A History of South Africa (London, 1928), p.286; B.H. Dicke, The first Voortrekkers', South African Journal of Science, Vol. 2 (1926), p.1012; War Office, Native Tribes, Vol. 2, p.64; H.W. Grimsehl, 'Onluste in Modjadjiland, 1890-1894', SAAYB (1955), pp.204, 211-15, 229; J.A. Moulton, 'General Piet Joubert in die Transvaalse Geskiedenis', SAAYB (1957), pp.152, 156. [BACK]

33. SMA, 8.10.B, H. Berthoud to Grandjean, 20 Aug. 1886.

34. Ibid., 20 March 1888, 5 Aug. 1888, 16 Nov. 1900; H. A. Junod, Ernest Creux et Paul Berthoud (Lausanne, 1933), p.55. [BACK]

33. SMA, 8.10.B, H. Berthoud to Grandjean, 20 Aug. 1886.

34. Ibid., 20 March 1888, 5 Aug. 1888, 16 Nov. 1900; H. A. Junod, Ernest Creux et Paul Berthoud (Lausanne, 1933), p.55. [BACK]

35. Junod, Life, Vol. 1, p.356. One of Junod's informants remarked that 'a clan without a chief has lost its reason; it is dead'. Ibid., p.382. Another missionary stated, 'take away the chief, break the tribe and the individual becomes more conscious of himself. SMA 513/B, A. Grandjean to Leresche, 5 Sept. 1894. [BACK]

36. Junod, Life, Vol. 1, pp.253, 356-440; Vol. 2, pp.6-7, 338.

37. Ibid., Vol. 1, p.253. [BACK]

36. Junod, Life, Vol. 1, pp.253, 356-440; Vol. 2, pp.6-7, 338.

37. Ibid., Vol. 1, p.253. [BACK]

38. SMA 8.11.B, P. Berthoud to Mission Council, 22 Dec. 1877; Northern Division Native Commissioner, Report in Transvaal Commissioner for Native Affairs Department, Annual Report, 1902-03, B18; Transvaal Native Affairs Department, Report, 1905, p.61. [BACK]

39. Berthoud, Lettres Missionaires, p.376-7; B.H. Dicke, The Bush Speaks (Pietermaritzburg, 1936), pp.38-40; Interview with Ncapu Siweya and Ndengeza Wamunungu, 16 April 1979. [BACK]

40. P. Rich, 'The origins of apartheid ideology', African Affairs, No. 315 (1980), pp.178-9. [BACK]

41. Berthoud, Lettres Missionaires, pp.363, 365; Grandjean, La Mission, p.87. [BACK]

42. SMA 8.11.C, P. Berthoud to Mission Council, 13 Sept. 1873; W. Nelson, letter of 31 Jan. 1878, Africana Notes and News, Vol. 20, No, 6 (1973), p.196. [BACK]

43. L'Afrique Explorée et Civilizée, Vol. 2 (1880-1881), p.163; TA. C.27.18, 'Report on the Knobnose location'. [BACK]

44. SMA 8.10.B, H. Berthoud to Ch. Cuenod, 4 May 1888. [BACK]

45. Zoutpansberg Review, 3 March 1891. [BACK]

46. In the 1890s, the South African Republic attempted to extract a tax of 12 s 6 d from all Africans. Those living in the reserves paid an extra £2 and 10 s for each additional wife. B.H. Dicke, evidence in the Transvaal Labour Commission (Pretoria, 1904), p.323; E. Brookes, A History of Native Policy in South Africa (Cape Town, 1924), pp.121-2; Petrus Naude, 'Boerdery in die Suid-Afrikaanse Republiek, 1858-1899', unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of South Africa, 1954, p.217. [BACK]

47. Zoutpansberg Review, 3 Feb. 1892. [BACK]

48. Zoutpansberg Review, 14 Jan. 1895, 2 Oct. 1896, 9 Nov. 1896, 14 Dec. 1896; De Boerevriend, 9 Nov. 1895; Evidence of Brandt in Transvaal Indigency Commission continue

1906-7, Report 207. See also Naude, 'Boerdery in die S.A.R.', passim, and J.L. Hattingh, 'Die Trekke uit die Suid-Afrikaanse Republiek en die Oranje-Vrystaat, 1875-1895', unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pretoria, 1975, passim . [BACK]

49. SMA 8.10.B, H. Berthoud to Mission Council, 22 Jan. 1889, 24 June 1890, 17 Feb. 1891; Zoutpansberg Review, 5 March 1892, 27 Jan. 1896, 1 June 1896; BMSAS, No. 124 (1895), p.423; Evidence of Dicke in Transvaal Land Commission; Evidence of Hogge and Munnik to South African Native Affairs Commission, pp.457, 488. [BACK]

50. TA. C.27.18, G.G. Murray to Native Locations Commission, 16 Aug. 1906. [BACK]

51. E. Creux, BMSAS (1909), p.153; Transvaal Legislative Assembly, Debates (1908), pp.279, 312; Transvaal Native Affairs Department, Annual Report (1908-09), pp.11, 48; Ibid ., (1909-10), pp.51-2. [BACK]

52. Transvaal Native Affairs Department, Report (1909-10), passim . [BACK]

53. Natives' Land Commission, UG 19-16, Appendix IV, pp.7, 126, 230. [BACK]

54. Evidence to the Natives Economic Commission (NEC), by Kirsten (pp.256, 259, 261, 264) and Daneel (pp.210-221) (TS in Herbst Papers, University of Cape Town Library); H. Rogers, Native Administration in the Union of South Africa (Pretoria, 1949), p.127. [BACK]

55. Tenants paid rents of £2, plus grazing fees for cattle and sheep, to land companies and £1 for Crown Land. Three months' labour service undertaken by a single male was valued at £4 10s in the late 1920s. Eastern Transvaal Natives' Land Commission (1918), UG 32-1918, 82-3; SC10-27, 117-23. [BACK]

56. NEC, Evidence of Chief Senthumula, p.64. [BACK]

57. This is evident from the interviews of the NEC of 1930 by Gilbertson, pp.39, 44, 49, Lyle, pp.115-21, Daneel, pp.190, 195, 213, and Sibasa, p.149. Stevenson Hamilton, The Low-Veld (London, 1929), pp.182, 251. [BACK]

58. N.J. van Warmelo, A Preliminary Survey of the Bantu Tribes of South Africa (Pretoria, 1935), p.90. [BACK]

59. Evidence of E. Creux, South Africa Native Affairs Commission (SANAC), 1903-05, pp.612, 614; Transvaal Native Affairs Department, Report (1905), p.60; War Office, Native Tribes, pp. 66-7; Van Warmelo, Ethnographic Survey, p.90; J.D. Krige, 'Traditional origins of the Sotho of the northern Transvaal'; Krige, Realm of the Rain Queen, p.325. [BACK]

60. Zoutpansberg Review, 8 Aug. 1892, 4 May 1896; Transvaal Indigency Commission, 1906-7, Report, p.63; W. Bleloch, The New South Africa (London, 1902), p.163. [BACK]

61. SANAC Vol. 4 (1903-05), p.488, evidence of Munnik. [BACK]

62. S. Bovet, BMSAS (1911), p.82; Natives Land Commission (UG 19-'16) Appendix IV, p.7. [BACK]

63. Evidence of H.R. Abercrombie, SC 10-'27, 205; Eastern Transvaal Natives' Land Commission, pp.62, 76, 89, 97; Standard Bank (SB), 1/1/366, Louis Trichardt Report for 1937. [BACK]

64. Evidence of Daneel to NEC, p.227. See also pp.202, 210-11, 221, 228. [BACK]

65. Evidence of Kirsten in ibid ., pp.257-8. See also pp.256, 259-64. [BACK]

66. Eastern Transvaal Natives' Land Commission, p.74. [BACK]

67. Transvaal Indigency Commission, 1906-7, Report; Borlie in BMSAS (1909), p.154; Zoutpansberg Review, 9 Nov. 1896. [BACK]

68. SB. Louis Trichardt Annual Reports, 1928, 1930, 1932-3, 1933, 1935. [BACK]

69. Zoutpansberg Review, 28 Jan. and 25 Feb. 1936; SB, 1/1/366, Louis Trichardt Report, 1937. [BACK]

70. Star, 14 and 22 Feb. 1935; 28 Dec. 1938. [BACK]

71. Valdizia Bulletin, 4 July 1932.

72. Ibid ., 2 Feb. 1935. [BACK]

71. Valdizia Bulletin, 4 July 1932.

72. Ibid ., 2 Feb. 1935. [BACK]

73. Evidence of Munnik to SANAC, pp.481-2; Evidence of Brandt to TLC, p. 206; continue

Rogers, Native Administration, pp.4-9. [BACK]

74. Evidence of Abel Erasmus et al . to Native Location Commission, 27 Sept. 1905. [BACK]

75. War Office, Native Tribes, pp.71, 122. [BACK]

76. P. Harries, 'The anthropologist as historian and liberal: H.-A. Junod and the Thonga', Journal of Southern African Studies, Vol. 8, No. 1 (1981), pp.37-50. [BACK]

77. Brookes, Native Policy, pp.156, 205, 333-5, 355. [BACK]

78. Cf. the Bantu Affairs Act No. 23 of 1920 and, especially, the Native Administration Act of 1927. For the history of this legislation, see S. Dubow, 'Holding "a just balance between black and white": the Native Affairs Department in South Africa, c. 1920', Journal of Southern African Studies, Vol. 12, No. 2 (1986), pp.217-39. On Tsonga customary law, see T.D. Ramsay, 'Tsonga Law in the Transvaal', African Studies, Vol. 5, No. 3 (1946). [BACK]

79. Quoted in M. Morris, 'The development of capitalism in South African agriculture: class struggle in the countryside' in H. Wolpe, ed., The Articulation of Modes of Production (London, 1980), p.230; Eastern Transvaal Natives' Land Commission, p.380. [BACK]

80. Cited in P. Bonner, "The black mineworkers' strike: a preliminary account', in B. Bozzoli, ed., Labour, Townships and Protest (Johannesburg, 1979), pp.287-8. [BACK]

81. E. Brookes, The Colour Problem in South Africa (Lovedale, 1934), pp.137-40. [BACK]

82. E. Krige, 'The place of the north-eastern Transvaal Sotho in the southern Bantu complex', Africa, Vol. 9, No. 3 (1938), p.292. [BACK]

83. Junod, Life, Vol. 2, pp.479-504; J.C. Kotze, 'Aanpassing en kompensasie in politieke ontwikkeling', in South African Journal of Ethnology, Vol. 2, No. 1 (1979), pp.38-9. [BACK]

84. Evidence of Takilane, one of (the Venda) chief Sibasa's headmen, before Natives' Lands Commission (UG 22-1916), p.70. For similar views, see Headman Piet Boi, UG 19-'16, p.381. [BACK]

85. Valdezia Bulletin, Aug. 1934. [BACK]

86. C.E. Davel, 'Die Werk van die WNLA, 1900-1910', unpublished M.A. thesis, University of Pretoria, 1969, p.73; J.K. McNamara, 'Development of the recruitment infrastructure: labour migration routes to the Witwatersrand gold mines and compound accommodation, 1889-1917', South African Labour Bulletin (1979). [BACK]

87. Chamber of Mines, Annual Report (CMAR) (1894), p.34; CMAR (1895); TA SSA 329 R1959, Sec., Robinson Mines to SS, 7 Feb. 1896, encl. in R9607, pp.33, 37, 43, 44; Annual Report of the Association of Mines (1896), p.61; CMAR (1898), p.57. [BACK]

88. S. Moroney, 'Industrial conflict in a labour repressive economy: black labour on the Transvaal gold mines, 1901-1912', unpublished B.A. Honours thesis, University of the Witwatersrand, 1976, pp.44-5; C.R. Diamond, 'African labour problems on South African gold mines with special reference to the strike of 1946', unpublished M.A. thesis, University of Cape Town, 1968, pp.152, 201-2; J.K. McNamara, 'Social life, ethnicity and conflict in a gold mine hostel', unpublished M.A. thesis, University of the Witwatersrand, 1978, pp.31, 37, 39, 107-09, 120-21; P. Pearson, "The social structure of a South African gold mine hostel', unpublished B.A. Honours thesis, University of the Witwatersrand, 1975, pp.10, 13-15; T. Dunbar Moodie, 'The rules are there to protect those in power only', unpublished essay presented at the Witwatersrand History Workshop, 1978. [BACK]

89. Editorial, The Mining Survey, Vol. 5, No. 1 (1954), pp.l4-20. [BACK]

90. Native Grievances Enquiry (1913-14) (UG 37), Report, p.64; D. Horner and A. Kooy, 'Conflict on South African mines, 1972-1979', SALDRU Working Papers No. 29, University of Cape Town, 1980, p.17. [BACK]

91. N. Jaques, BMSAS (1910), p.190; Relatório do Curador, 1912-13 (Lourenço Marques, 1913), pp.92, 97; ibid . (1913-14), pp.165-6; Moroney, 'Industrial conflict', pp.107-8; Homer and Kooy, 'Conflict on South African mines', p.112; McNamara, 'Social life', pp.50-51, 60, 72, 76, 81, 93; Pearson, 'Social structure', p.46. break [BACK]

92. TA. GNLB 125. 2201/13. 'Competitive dances among the Portuguese natives in mine compounds', September 1920. [BACK]

93. Chamber of Mines, 'The native worker on the Witwatersrand goldmines', Public Relations Department series, No. 7 (1947), p.8. [BACK]

94. H. Tracey, Chopi Musicians (London, 1948), p.30, cited in L. Vail and L. White, 'Forms of resistance: songs and perceptions of power in colonial Mozambique', American Historical Review, Vol. 88, No. 4 (1983), p.915. The skins referred to in the song are those of the costumes worn by Chopi dancers in the migodo, and the implication is that the Sotho and Xhosa have been busy grabbing food for themselves while the Mozambique workers have been heedlessly enjoying themselves by dancing. [BACK]

95. Moroney, 'Industrial conflict', p.110; P.Bonner, 'The 1920 black mineworkers' strike', pp.283-5. [BACK]

96. E.G. Jansen, Native Policy in the Union of South Africa (Pretoria, 1950), pp.4-8. See also T. Dunbar Moodie, The Rise of Afrikanerdom (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1975), Chapter 13. [BACK]

97. Noord Transvaaler, 24 March and 19 Sept. 1950. [BACK]

98. SMA Valdezia Mission Station, receipt for 1957. See also ibid ., 1956. [BACK]

99. Surplus Peoples Project, Vol. 5 (Cape Town); P. Harries, 'A forgotten corner of the Transvaal: reconstructing the history of a relocated community through oral testimony and song', in B. Bozzolli, ed., Class, Community and Conflict: South African Perspectives (Johannesburg, 1987).

100. Ibid .; South African Institute of Race Relations (SAIRR), Handbook, 1959-60 (Johannesburg) p.48; J.C.M. Mbata, The Operation of the Bantu Authorities System in the Northern Transvaal (SAIRR, Johannesburg, 1960), pp.4-5; Interview with Chief Mhinga, Dec. 1983. [BACK]

101. In 1960 it was estimated that the northern Transvaal reserves carried 5 times too many people and 4 times too many cattle. Noord Transvaaler, 12 Dec. 1960. [BACK]

102. The material upon which the following section is based has been drawn largely from the private records of the people concerned. See also C. Desmond, The Discarded People (Johannesburg, 1969), pp.147-8. [BACK]

103. D. Baloyi to M.D.C. de Wet Nel, Sept. 1964 (private letter). [BACK]

104. "The case against the proposed incorporation of the farm Ongedacht and the consequent removal of the Shangaan residents' (n.d. May 1984?), privately circulated. [BACK]

105. Hansard, Vol. 20, 1970, cols. 1782-83. [BACK]

106. Gazankulu Legislative Assembly, Debates (GLA), 1st session, 1972: pp.23, 34, 40-41, statements of Chief Mnisi. [BACK]

107. GLA, Vol. 27, 1982, pp.586-93; A. Zwi, 'Piecing together health in the homelands', Carnegie Conference, University of Cape Town, April 1984, paper No. 187, pp.17-19. [BACK]

108. GLA, Vol. 29, May-June 1982, pp.87, 148, 183; Surplus Peoples Project, Vol. 5, pp.158, 174-5; GLA, Vol. 29, 1982, p.122. [BACK]

109. Cf. Rand Daily Mail, 27-8 Feb. and 1 March 1985; private correspondence. [BACK]

110. Mhalamhala (Giyani newspaper), 7 and 9 May 1984. [BACK]

111. South African Institute of Race Relations (SAIRR), Annual Survey, 1984, pp.501-02; J.J. Kritzinger, 'Die onvoltooide sendingtaak in Gazankulu', mimeo, Dutch Reformed Church, n.p., 1982, p.43. See particularly Institute of Development Studies, Rand Afrikaans University, A Development Framework for Gazankulu (Johannesburg, 1983). [BACK]

112. On poverty in Gazankulu see the Carnegie Conference papers (1984) by Catherine Schneider, 'Microstudies in Gazankulu: study of 8 villages in two districts of Gazankulu', paper No. 66, and P. Harries, 'Aspects of poverty in Gazankulu: three case studies', paper No. 67. break [BACK]

113. See the 'Draft constitution of the national, cultural, liberation movement for the development and direction of the people of Gazankulu and to be known as the Ximoko xa Rixaka', mimeo. [BACK]

114. M. Horrell, The African Homelands of South Africa (Johannesburg, 1961), pp.60-61; BENBO, Gazankulu—Economic Review (Pretoria, 1976), p.16. [BACK]

115. Gazankulu Government Gazette, Vol. 13, No. 41 (1986). [BACK]

116. SAIRR, Annual Survey (1985), pp.266-68. This marks a decrease from 71 per cent in 1982/3. GLA, Vol. 25, 1982, p.35.

117. Ibid ., first session, 11-17 April 1972, pp.8-9, 34, 40; Vol. 7, 1973, pp.25, 57.

118. Ibid ., 1st session, 11-17 April 1972, p.l8.

119. Ibid ., 8th session, Vol. 13, 1978, 21—'Descendants of Gwambe and Dzavana', the founding ancestors of the Djonga according to Junod, Life, Vol. 1, p.21; Vol.2, p.349. [BACK]

116. SAIRR, Annual Survey (1985), pp.266-68. This marks a decrease from 71 per cent in 1982/3. GLA, Vol. 25, 1982, p.35.

117. Ibid ., first session, 11-17 April 1972, pp.8-9, 34, 40; Vol. 7, 1973, pp.25, 57.

118. Ibid ., 1st session, 11-17 April 1972, p.l8.

119. Ibid ., 8th session, Vol. 13, 1978, 21—'Descendants of Gwambe and Dzavana', the founding ancestors of the Djonga according to Junod, Life, Vol. 1, p.21; Vol.2, p.349. [BACK]

116. SAIRR, Annual Survey (1985), pp.266-68. This marks a decrease from 71 per cent in 1982/3. GLA, Vol. 25, 1982, p.35.

117. Ibid ., first session, 11-17 April 1972, pp.8-9, 34, 40; Vol. 7, 1973, pp.25, 57.

118. Ibid ., 1st session, 11-17 April 1972, p.l8.

119. Ibid ., 8th session, Vol. 13, 1978, 21—'Descendants of Gwambe and Dzavana', the founding ancestors of the Djonga according to Junod, Life, Vol. 1, p.21; Vol.2, p.349. [BACK]

116. SAIRR, Annual Survey (1985), pp.266-68. This marks a decrease from 71 per cent in 1982/3. GLA, Vol. 25, 1982, p.35.

117. Ibid ., first session, 11-17 April 1972, pp.8-9, 34, 40; Vol. 7, 1973, pp.25, 57.

118. Ibid ., 1st session, 11-17 April 1972, p.l8.

119. Ibid ., 8th session, Vol. 13, 1978, 21—'Descendants of Gwambe and Dzavana', the founding ancestors of the Djonga according to Junod, Life, Vol. 1, p.21; Vol.2, p.349. [BACK]

120. University of South Africa Archives, AC 23c, Potgieter Collection on Tsonga Cultural Academy; D, Dison, 'Opposition parties in Vendaland and Gazankulu', Conference on the History of Opposition in South Africa, mimeo, Johannesburg, 1978, p.280. [BACK]

121. Based on songs collected in July 1984. [BACK]

122. Cf. N. Alexander, 'Nation and ethnicity', Work in Progress, No. 28 (Johannesburg, August 1983), and 'Race, ethnicity and nationalism in social science in Southern Africa', paper delivered at the Association of Sociology in Southern Africa, University of the Witwatersrand, July 1984. [BACK]

123. Freedom (Kliptown) Charter, p.6. break [BACK]