Undermining Policy

A third pattern of participation is to undermine or contradict policy. A variant perhaps of Manion's concept of "policy remakes" (see chapter 8 in this volume), this autonomy allows grassroots actors to willfully recast policy according to their interests. This policy process can produce reforms that are inconsistent and at times conflicting.^[17]

Reforming professional standards offers a good case of contradictory action. At one institution, one part of the curriculum was undermined by another, as each department interpreted "higher quality teacher educa-

[17] In this way and others the phenomena I describe differ from Manion's examples of remaking policy, for the final outcome in the teacher standards case—uncoordinated policy and policy sabotaged—is not necessarily the desire of any actor or group of actors, but instead is a by-product of relatively weak actors, each exerting limited power to recast policy in their interest. Of course, another significant difference is in the resources and power possessed by individuals involved in the process: Manion's cadres as individuals bring more strength to their negotiations than these departmental leaders, who are not really negotiating but are simply trying to cope in self-interested ways with policies handed to them.

tion" as meaning expanding its own course hours and offerings. In effect, departmental plans that simultaneously called for strengthened preparation in education and more advanced work in the students' major fields produced an increase in specialization at the expense of professional training in education. In the school's 1980 course plan, for example, education courses for all departments constituted only 2.7–5.8 percent of student course hours, in contrast to an earlier 10–20 percent. Struggles within colleges demonstrate ways in which lower-level units deflect decisions in ways they find congenial.