1. Minear, Victors' Justice , 8-9, 49-50; Keenan and Brown, Crimes , 16. [BACK]

2. Smith, The Road , 3, 45-47. [BACK]

3. Montgomery, Forced to Be Free , 150-151. [BACK]

4. MacArthur, Reminiscences , 318, 298. [BACK]

5. FRUS, 1945 , vol. 6, 921-923. [BACK]

6. WX 62612, JCS to MacArthur, Sept. 12, 1945, GS file (B), NDLT; NYT , Sept. 12, 1945, 3; FRUS, 1945 , vol. 6, 960-961. [BACK]

7. FRUS, 1945 , vol. 6, 932-936. [BACK]

8. PRJ , 431-432. [BACK]

9. The IRAA was organized in 1940 to bring all political groups into one body that would "assist imperial rule" in fighting the war against China. Although sometimes compared with the Nazi Party in Hitler's Germany, the IRAA was never well organized or particularly effective even as a political association. [BACK]

10. FRUS, 1945 , vol. 6, 952-953, 962-963, 984-985. [BACK]

11. Ibid., 963-966, 967-970, 977-978. [BACK]

12. Ibid., 971-973, gives a brief description of the two memoranda, which were transmitted to the State Department. For Konoe's remark, see Emmerson, The Japanese Thread , 267. [BACK]

14. Horwitz, "The Tokyo Trial," 498. [BACK]

15. Ibid., 495-496; Hata, Nankin jiken , 32. Horwitz stated (495) that an executive committee of the prosecutors selected the suspects to be indicted. [BACK]

16. FU 607815173, FO 371/57428, Gascoigne tel. 699 to London, June 24, 1946; Minear, Victors' Justice , 111, fns. 74, 75. Keenan told a news conference on June 17, 1946, that a decision was made "on high political levels" not to try the emperor and that although some prosecutors disagreed with this decision, Keenan personally felt the emperor was "a figurehead and fraud perpetrated on the Japanese people" (NYT, June 18, 1946, 1). MacArthur reportedly once told Keenan that if the emperor had been put on trial, he would have taken "all the responsibility" for Japan's entry into the war, presumably to shield others from punishment (POLAD desp. 782, Dec. 14, 1948, NRAW, RG 84, Box 2289). [BACK]

17. MacArthur, Reminiscences , 288. [BACK]

18. Horwitz, "The Tokyo Trial," 496. [BACK]

19. Ibid., 496. Two other defendants, Hoshino Naoki and Kaya Okinori, were bureaucrats who had held important financial positions in Manchuria before the war. [BACK]

20. Kido, Kido Koichi nikki , vol. 2, for Dec. 10, 1945. See also Kojima, "Sempan risuto," 283-284. [BACK]

21. Horwitz, "The Tokyo Trial," 494; Liu, "The Tokyo Trial," 168-170. [BACK]

22. In Re Yamashita , 327 U.S. 1 (1946), 28; Manchester, American Caesar , 487. [BACK]

23. MacArthur, Reminiscences , 295-296. Lt. Samuel S. Stratton, a naval language officer who participated in the defense of Yamashita and later became a congressman from upstate New York, told MacArthur on October 28, 1945, that Yamashita had done his best to prevent atrocities by his forces. MacArthur said, "Let history decide" (int. with Stratton). [BACK]

24. Homma v. Steyer , 327 U.S. 759 (1946); MacArthur, Reminiscences , 296-298; James, The Years of MacArthur , vol. 3, 94-102. [BACK]

25. Harriman and Abel, Special Envoy , 544; Harry Kern, "Harry Kern's Story," Yomiuri shimbun (English ed.), Sept. 4, 1978, 7. MacArthur did not mention in his official review of the Homma case or in his Reminiscences that Homma had rejected Wainwright's offer to surrender. [BACK]

26. Minear, Victors' Justice , 168, fn. 16; Kennan, Memoirs , 370; Weiner, "MacArthur Unjustifiably Accused." I am indebted to Charles Kades for giving me the Weiner article. [BACK]

27. PRJ , 8-81, 482-488. [BACK]

28. PRJ , 413. [BACK]

29. PRJ , 431, Part I, para. 5 (b). [BACK]

30. CINCAFPAC message to War Dept., CA 52394, Sept. 24, 1945, NRAW, Sutherland file; F 13031/2/23, FO 371/54105, Gascoigne ltr. no. 177 to Bevin, Sept. 9, 1946. [BACK]

31. GS memo to chief of staff, "Removal and Exclusion of Undesirable Personnel from Public Office," Dec. 7, 1945, NRAS, RG 331, Box 2053. [BACK]

32. CofS Marshall memo to chief, GS, Dec. 30, 1945, NRAS, RG 331, Box 2152; J. Williams, Japan's Political Revolution , 38-39; Baerwald, The Purge , 80; int. with Kades. [BACK]

33. PRJ , 489. [BACK]

34. Kades ltr. to Williams, July 17, 1974, JWC; Montgomery, Forced to Be Free , 26; PRJ , 42-44. [BACK]

35. Int. with Kades; Borton, Japan's Modern Century , 412. Borton asserted the purge "went far beyond its original purpose .... Its arbitrary classifications brought unjust treatment to many." Reischauer, who was an army officer dealing with Japanese affairs during and after the war, said the purge affected many more Japanese than U.S. planners had anticipated (int. with Reischauer).

     SCAP might have tried more Japanese as war crimes suspects under the broad language of its directives from Washington but concluded that an "extensive exclusion from influential positions" was preferable (CLKL). [BACK]

36. Morita, Made in Japan , 48-49. [BACK]

37. Inoki, Hyoden Yoshida , vol. 3, 103; Whitney, MacArthur's Rendezvous , 245-246. Yoshida asserted in his memoirs ( YM , 68) that he never had such a meeting with MacArthur, but as Inoki said, Yoshida was almost certainly wrong. [BACK]

38. PRJ , 17. [BACK]

39. Whitney memo to supreme commander, Jan. 28, 1946, NRAS, RG 331, Box 2055. In an amicable meeting, Shidehara tried to get Whitney's agreement to a narrower interpretation of the purge order, but Whitney did not budge (CLKL). [BACK]

40. Whitney memo to CINC, Feb. 11 1946, NRAS, RG 331, Box 2055. [BACK]

41. Whitney memo to SC, Feb. 12, 1946, NRAS, RG 331, Box 2055. Whitney was indignant at this attempt to undercut purge policy, attributing it to a conservative cabal in headquarters (CLKL). Those who think SCAP was dominated by New Dealers do not realize that conservatives such as Willoughby and Bunker also had a lot of influence. [BACK]

42. Sebald, Oral History, NL, Special Collection, 551-552; see J. Williams, Japan's Political Revolution , 74-97, for a sympathetic portrait of Whitney. [BACK]

43. Sone, Watakushi no memoaru , 132; J. Williams, Japan's Political Revolution , 33-51. [BACK]

44. GS memo to CofS, Jan. 16, 1946, and GS memo to G-3, Jan. 25, 1946, NRAS, GS file, RG 331, Box 2187. [BACK]

45. General Order no. 10, June 23, 1947, PRJ , 801. [BACK]

46. Whitney memo to CINC, Feb. 11, 1946, NRAS, RG 331, Box 2055. [BACK]