1. PRJ , 460; James, The Years of MacArthur , vol. 3, 300-301. [BACK]

2. Coughlin, Conquered Press , 21-22, 47; F 15685/2/23, FO 371/54109, Gascoigne ltr. to FO, Oct. 2, 1946; Mayo, "Civil Censorship"; Eto, "Genron tosei." [BACK]

3. NYT , Sept. 14, 1945, 8; PRJ , 739. [BACK]

4. NYT , Sept. 15, 1945, 4; Kojima, Nihon senryo , vol. 1, 100-102; PRJ , 740; S. Johnson, The Japanese Through American Eyes , 39-54. [BACK]

5. FRUS, 1945 , vol. 6, 715-719; NYT, Sept. 18, 1945, 3, and Sept. 23, 1945, 1, E3; Kojima, Nihon senryo , vol. 1, 113; Feis, Contest over Japan , 28-29. [BACK]

6. RLED, Oct. 20, 1945. [BACK]

7. PRJ , 463-465; Bouterse, Taylor, and Mass, "American Military Government Experience," 332. [BACK]

8. Takemae, Senryo sengoshi , 99-107. The concept of kokutai referred to "the harmonious unity of the ruler and the people, the whole nation as one family under the rule of the emperor, his line unbroken for ages eternal" (Irokawa, The Culture of the Meiji Period , 247). When Japanese hear the word kokutai now, more than a generation later, they probably think of a national athletic contest, the acronyn for which is pronounced the same way. [BACK]

9. Takemae, Senryo sengoshi , 156; SCAP, History of the Non-Military Activities , monograph 14, 8. Sixty percent of the senior officials of the Home Ministry were removed from office (C. Johnson, "Japan: Who Governs?" 20). [BACK]

10. Eto (ed.), Senryo shiroku , vol. 1, 356-357; Sone, Watakushi no memoaru , 127. [BACK]

11. Takemae, Senryo sengoshi , 125-128; desp. 200. 7, POLAD file 850, Oct. 10, 1945, NRAS, RG 84, Box 2275; Emmerson, The Japanese Thread , 70-71. Emmerson, one of the outstanding foreign service officers of his time, was never promoted to ambassador. Norman, who had taken part in Communist Party activities while a student at Cambridge University in the 1930s and who later rose to posts of great distinction in the foreign service of Canada, committed suicide in Cairo in 1957, a few days before a U.S. congressional committee began a lengthy investigation into communist activities in occupied Japan. See Dower, "Introduction," 98-101. [BACK]

12. Uchino, Japan's Postwar Economy , 15-18; Patrick, "The Phoenix Risen," 306-307. See also J. Cohen, Japan's Economy , 417, 459; Gordon, Evolution of Labor Relations , 363. [BACK]

13. T. Cohen, Remaking Japan , 344-345, gave an estimate of ¥35 billion (about $2.5 billion). SCAP had issued an order earlier forbidding the Japanese to dispose of government property, but it was ignored. The Diet conducted an investigation of hoarded and stolen property in 1947, but little came of it, despite the huge sums that may have been involved.

     It is difficult to estimate the value of the Japanese yen in dollars during the occupation because there was heavy and rapid inflation during its early years and no unitary exchange rate was set until 1949. An approximate yen value is used in this book based on a dollar/yen comparative formula devised by Theodore Cohen, who served in the SCAPESS. These yen equivalents were based on the wholesale price index up to September 1946 and thereafter on the consumer price indexes, until an official rate was established in April 1949. The "Cohen formula" is set out in Remaking Japan (465):

14. See Uchino, Japan's Postwar Economy , 254; YM, 80; Reischauer, The Japanese , 222; Arisawa, Showa keizaishi , vol. 2, 4-5. Statistics on Japanese caloric intake in the early occupation period vary widely. In one famous episode in 1947 Tokyo district court judge Yamaguchi Yoshitada allegedly starved to death because he refused to eat food other than official rations (C. Johnson, MITI , 185). [BACK]

15. MacArthur, Reminiscences , 313; SCAP, History of Non-Military Activities , monograph 4, 97-98. [BACK]

16. Nakamura, The Postwar Japanese Economy , 18-20; Lincoln, "Showa Economic Experience," 194. [BACK]

17. Allen, Japan's Economic Recovery , 17-18; int. with Watanabe Takeshi. An intelligent and hard-working Ministry of Finance official who spoke excellent English, Watanabe was a conservative who seemed to feel that New Dealers had great influence during the occupation. SCAP did have a number of New Dealers, some of whom were highly effective, but it probably had at least as many conservatives and many more politically inert participants. Very few U.S. generals were New Dealers. [BACK]

18. Levine, "Labor Laws," vol. 4, 351. [BACK]

19. Tsurumi, Japanese Business , 82, 85; J. Cohen, Japan's Economy , 436. [BACK]

20. PRJ , 58; Coughlin, Conquered Press , 80-110; T. Cohen, "Labor Democratization," 187-188; J. Moore, "Production Control," 2-26; Gordon, The Evolution of Labor , 480, fn. 18. [BACK]

21. Takemae, Sengo rodo kaikaku , 79-81; Garon, The State and Labor , 236-237; T. Cohen, Remaking Japan , 214-218. [BACK]

22. Tsurumi, Japanese Business , 81; Gordon, The Evolution of Labor , 331; T. Cohen, Remaking Japan , 199. [BACK]

23. T. Cohen, "Labor Democratization," 176-177; Tsurumi, Japanese Business , 78. Japan's auto workers formed an industrywide union in 1947, but it broke up shortly after the occupation ended (Cusumano, The Japanese Automobile , 142-164). [BACK]

24. "Notes on MacArthur-Townsend Conference," Mar. 18, 1947, MMA, RG 5, official correspondence, file 2. [BACK]

25. T. Cohen, "Labor Democratization," 187-188. [BACK]

26. Peter Frost, "Land Reforms of 1946," Kodansha Encyclopedia of Japan , vol. 4, 364-365; Dore, Land Reform , 23-53; Takemae, GHQ , 128-130; Patrick, "The Phoenix Risen," 302-303. [BACK]

27. Dore, Land Reform , 114-125; Nakamura, The Postwar Japanese Economy , 170; Masumi, Postwar Politics , 250-252. [BACK]

28. MacArthur, Reminiscences , 313; Dore, Land Reform , 131-132. See also T. Cohen, Remaking Japan , 37-39. [BACK]

29. Dore, Land Reform , 134-135; Masumi, Postwar Politics , 251; YM, 198-199; Nakamura, The Postwar Japanese Economy , 170. Land reform was a matter upon which the Japanese took an independent initiative in 1945, but the occupation soon intervened to demand stronger measures. (See Amakawa, "Senryo seisaku," 223.) [BACK]

30. PRJ , 425. [BACK]

31. Hadley, Antitrust , 439. Eleanor Hadley has won great respect in Japan and the United States for her authoritative studies of the zaibatsu. [BACK]

32. Cohen, Japan's Economy , 426. [BACK]

33. F 8263/364/23, FO 371/46429/135, U.K. Economic and Industrial Planning Staff paper, Oct. 23, 1945; Lockwood, "Industrial Development." One general active in economic planning, Suzuki Teiichi, and two bureaucrats active in finance, Kaya Okinori and Hoshino Naoki, all of whom were connected with operations in China, were indicted and convicted as Class A war criminals. [BACK]

34. MacArthur, Reminiscences , 308; FRUS, 1948 , vol. 6, 702. [BACK]

35. J. Cohen, Japan's Economy , 102; Hadley, "Zaibatsu Dissolution," Kodansha Encyclopedia of Japan , vol. 8, 364. See Bisson, Zaibatsu Dissolution in Japan , 6-32, for a description of zaibatsu history and organization. [BACK]

36. Bisson, Zaibatsu Dissolution in Japan , 24-25. [BACK]

37. NYT, Oct. 20. 1945, 6; YM , 150-151; Hadley, Antitrust , 43-44; Bisson, Zaibatsu Dissolution in Japan , 70-71. [BACK]

38. Bisson, Zaibatsu Dissolution in Japan , 73-74, 81, 241-244; SCAPIN 249, Nov. 6, 1945; DOS, Occupation , 166-168. [BACK]

39. Locke letter to Truman, Oct. 4, 1945, 5-6, HSTL. [BACK]

40. Nishi, Unconditional Democracy , 18. [BACK]

41. PRJ , 433. [BACK]

42. Hall, Education for a New Japan , 2; MacArthur message to War Dept., Jan. 4, 1946, War Dept. file 894.42 A/1-1446, NRAW. [BACK]

43. Nishi, Unconditional Democracy , 164-165, 173; Suzuki E., Nihon senryo , 68-71. Twenty-two percent of all teachers and school officials either resigned or were removed. See Maeda, "The Direction of Postwar Education." [BACK]

44. MacArthur, Reminiscences , 286-287; Nishi, Unconditional Democracy , 51; Coleman, ''Harry Kelly"; DOS, Activities of the FEC, 109. [BACK]

45. Nishi, Unconditional Democracy , 189, 193; Suzuki, Nihon senryo , 153. [BACK]

46. DOS, Report of the First U.S. Education Mission . [BACK]

47. Royall to Truman, Apr. 27, 1949, Truman correspondence, subject file, HSTL. Ray Moore of Amherst College has done extensive research on this subject and is the source of this reference. [BACK]

48. Woodward, The Allied Occupation , 245; James, The Years of MacArthur , vol. 2, 291-292. [BACK]

49. MacArthur, Reminiscences , 310-311; Hall, Education for a New Japan , 75. [BACK]

50. SCAPIN 448, PRJ , 467-469; Takemae, Senryo sengoshi , 269. [BACK]

51. PRJ , 470; Woodward, The Allied Occupation , 317-321. [BACK]

53. Ltr. of Dec. 31, 1945, MMA, RG 10, Box 2, VIP file—Yoshida. [BACK]

54. PRJ , 471; MacArthur, Reminiscences , 311. [BACK]

55. Kawai, Japan's American Interlude , 74; Masumi, Postwar Politics , 58. [BACK]

56. F 1849/18442, FO 371/63690, Gascoigne ltr. to Dening, Jan. 22, 1947; Mainichi (ed.), Ichiokunin no showashi , vol. 5, 147-177. After the occupation the emperor did not make extensive trips of this kind. [BACK]

57. Cary (ed.), War-Wasted Asia , 280-288. [BACK]

58. Yoshida ltr. to MacArthur, Dec. 22, 1945, and Bunker reply, Dec. 27, 1945, MMA, RG 5, Box l-A, VIP file—Yoshida. [BACK]