1. Edward A. Feigenbaum and Pamela McCorduck, The Fifth Generation: Artificial Intelligence and Japan's Computer Challenge to the World (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1983), 41.

2. Hans Moravec, Mind Children: The Future of Robot and Human Intelligence (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1988), 5.

3. The quote is from Pamela McCorduck, Machines Who Think (San Francisco: Freeman, 1981), 210. Fredkin's comment is cited in Feigenbaum and McCorduck, The Fifth Generation , 57. For the term machina sapiens , see Jeremy Campbell, The Improbable Machine: What the Upheavals in Artificial Intelligence Reveal About How the Mind Really Works (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1989), 38.

4. Richard Dawkins, The Selfish Gene (New York: Oxford University Press, 1976), 157.

5. For various expressions of this idea, see M. Mitchell Waldrop, "Toward a Unified Theory of Cognition," Science 241 (1 July 1988): 27-29, and "Soar: A Unified Theory of Cognition?" Science 241 (15 July 1988): 296-98; and Patricia S. Churchland and Terrence J. Sejnowski, "Perspectives on Cognitive Neuroscience,'' Science 242 (4 November 1988): 741-45. For a different point of view, see Gerald M. Edelman, Topobiology (New York: Basic Books, 1988).

6. Herbert A. Simon, Sciences of the Artificial (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1969), 83.

7. Sherry Turkle, The Second Self. Computers and the Human Spirit (New York: Touchstone Books, 1984), 13.

8. For the original statement, see Alan Turing, "Computing Machines and Intelligence," Mind 49 (1950): 433-60. On the way the test has been used or misused, see Charles Karelis, "Reflections on the Turing Test," Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour 16 (July 1986): 161-72; and Benny Shannon, "A Simple Comment Regarding the Turing Test,'' Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour 19 (July 1989): 249-56.

9. For more recent work in this area, which uses a different terminology than Mead's, see Gerald M. Edelman, Neural Darwinism (New York: Basic Books, 1987).

10. George Herbert Mead, Mind, Self, and Society from the Viewpoint of a Social Behaviorist (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962), 133 (originally published in 1934).

11. The ELIZA program is fully described in Joseph Weizenbaum, Computer Power and Human Reason (San Francisco: Freeman, 1976).

12. Ibid., 188-93.

13. Derek Sleeman, "Inferring Student Models for Intelligent Computer-Aided Instruction," in Machine Learning: An Artificial Intelligence Approach , ed. Ryszard S. Michaelski, Jaime G. Carbonell, and Tom M. Mitchell (Palo Alto, Calif: Tioga, 1983), 483-509; Derek Sleeman and John Seely Brown, "Intelligent Tutoring Systems: An Overview," in Sleeman and Brown, Intelligent Tutoring Systems (New York: Academic Press, 1982), 1-11.

14. William J. Clancey, "Use of MYCIN's Rules for Tutoring," in Rule-Based Systems: The MYCIN Experiments of the Stanford Heuristic Programming Project , ed. Bruce G. Buchanan and Edward H. Short-liffe (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1984), 464-89.

15. For a review, see Etienne Wenger, Artificial Intelligence and Tutoring Systems (Los Altos, Calif.: William Kaufmann, 1987).

16. Mead, Mind, Self, and Society , 46, 164.

17. Michael S. Gazzaniga, The Social Brain (New York: Basic Books, 1985).

18. Jerry Fodor, The Language of Thought (New York: Crowell, 1975), and Representations: Philosophical Essays on the Foundations of Cognitive Science (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1981). For a sociological critique, see Jeff Coulter, Rethinking Cognitive Theory (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1983), and "On Comprehension and 'Mental Representation,' "in Social Action and Artificial Intelligence: Surrey Conferences on Sociological Theory and Method 3, ed. C. Nigel Gilbert and Christian Heath (Aldershot: Gower, 1985), 8-23.

19. Patricia Smith Churchland, Neurophilosophy: Toward a Unified Science of the Mind-Brain (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1986).

20. On pereeptrons, see Frank Rosenblatt, Principles of Neuro-dynamics (New York: Spartan, 1962). For a critique, see Marvin Minsky and Seymour Papert, Perceptrons (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1969).

21. Marvin Minsky, "A Framework for Representing Knowledge," in Mind Design , ed. John Haugland (Montgomery, Vt.: Bradford, 1981), 95-128.

22. Cited in Howard Gardner, The Mind's New Science: A History of the Cognitive Revolution (New York: Basic Books, 1985), 18.

23. Jerry R. Hobbs and Robert C. Moore, Formal Theories of the Commonsense World (Norwood, N.J.: Ablex, 1985).

24. Allan Newall and Herbert A. Simon, Human Problem Solving (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1972); Edward A. Feigenbaum and Julian Feldman, eds., Computers and Thought (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1963).

25. Minsky, "A Framework for Representing Knowledge"; Roger C. Schank and Robert P. Abelson, Scripts, Plans, Goals, and Understanding (Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum, 1977).

26. John R. Searle, "Minds, Brains, and Programs," in Haugland, Mind Design , 282-306.

27. Israel Rosenfield, The Invention of Memory: A New View of the Brain (New York: Basic Books, 1988), 113.

28. Hubert L. Dreyfus, What Computers Can't Do: The Limits of Artificial Intelligence , rev. ed. (New York: Harper Colophon Books, 1979); Weizenbaum, Computer Power and Human Reason .

29. Edelman, Neural Darwinism ; Rosenfield, The Invention of Memory ; George N. Reeke, Jr., and Gerald M. Edelman, "Real Brains and Artificial Intelligence," Daedalus 117 (1988): 143-73.

30. Edelman, Neural Darwinism , 44.

31. Gerald M. Edelman and Vernon B. Mounteastle, The Mindful Brain: Cortical Organization and the Group-Selective Theory of Higher Brain Function (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1978).

32. Rosenfield, The Invention of Memory , 158.

33. Harold Garfinkel, Studies in Ethnomethodology (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1967), 38.

34. David Good, "Sociology and AI: The Lessons from Social Psychology," in Gilbert and Heath, Social Action and Artificial Intelligence , 82-103.

35. Emmanuel Schegloff and Harvey Sacks, "Opening Up Closings," in Ethnomethodology: Selected Readings , ed. Ray Turner (Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1979), 262.

36. Thomas J. Scheff, Microsociology: Discourse, Emotion, and Social Structure (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990), 57, 97.

37. John Bateman, "The Role of Language in the Maintenance of Intersubjectivity: A Computational Investigation," in Gilbert and Heath, Social Action and Artificial Intelligence , 40-81.

38. Dreyfus, What Computers Can't Do , 56-57.

39. Donald N. Levine, The Flight from Ambiguity: Essays in Social and Cultural Theory (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985), ix.

40. Cited in John Heritage, Garfinkel and Ethnomethodology (Cambridge, England: Polity Press, 1984), 61.

41. Erving Goffman, Encounters: Two Studies in the Sociology of Interaction (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1961), 67.

42. Arnold Gehlen, Man in the Age of Technology , trans. Patricia Lipscomb (New York: Columbia University Press, 1980), 3. See also Arnold Gehlen, Man: His Nature and Place in the World , trans. Clare McMillan and Karl Pillemer (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988), 79-92.

43. Rosenblatt, Principles of Neurodynamics , passim.

44. Geoffrey E. Hinton and James A. Anderson, eds., Parallel Models of Associative Memory (Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum, 1982); D. E. Rumelhart, P. Smolensky, J. L. McClelland, and G. E. Hinton, "Schematic and Sequential Thought Processes in PDP Models," in David E. Rumelhart, James L. McClelland, and the PDP Research Group, Parallel Distributed Processing: Explorations in the Microstructure of Cognition , vol. 2: Psychological and Biological Models (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1986), 7-57; Stephen Grossberg, Neural Networks and Natural Intelligence (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1988); Carver Mead, Analog VLSI and Neural Systems (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1988).

45. For clear accounts of the connectionist revolution in AI by journalists, see Campbell, The Improbable Machine ; and William F. Allman, Apprentices of Wonder: Inside the Neural Network Revolution (New York: Bantam Books, 1989).

46. Rumelhart et al., "Schematic and Sequential Thought Processes," 21.

47. J. L. McClelland, D. E. Rumelhart, and G. E. Hinton, "A General Framework for Parallel Distributive Processing," in Rumelhart et al., Parallel Distributed Processing , vol. 1: Foundations (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1986), 32.

48. Ibid., 39-40.

49. D. A. Norman, "Reflections on Cognition and Parallel Distributive Processing," in Rumelhart et al., Psychological and Biological Models , 531-52.

50. On the homunculi problem, see Daniel C. Dennett, Brainstorms: Philosophical Essays on Mind and Psychology (Montgomery, Vt.: Bradford, .1978),.123; and Zenon W. Pylyshyn, "Complexity and the Study of Artificial and Human Intelligence, in Haugland, Mind Design , 68. Gerald Edelman also believes that his research into human brains solves the homunculi problem; see Neural Darwinism , 45.

51. Dennett, Brainstorms , 123-24. For a more recent statement, and one that relies on Richard Dawkins's conception of memes, discussed in chapter 2, see Daniel C. Dennett, Consciousness Explained (Boston: Little, Brown, 1991).

52. Douglas R. Hofstader, Gödel, Escher, and Bach: An Eternal Golden Braid (New York: Basic Books, 1979), 26.

53. Marvin Minsky, The Society of Mind (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1986), 17. For Papert's reflections on the new approach to AI, see Seymour Papert, "One AI or Many?" Daedalus 117 (1988): 1-14.

54. Reeke and Edelman, "Real Brains and Artificial Intelligence," 152.

55. Rosenfield, The Invention of Memory , 8,145.

56. Norman, "Reflections on Cognition and Parallel Distributive Processing," 544, 546.

57. C. Nigel Gilbert and Christian Heath, "Introduction," in Gilbert and Heath, Social Action and Artificial Intelligence , 1.

58. For examples, see Marie Jahoda, "Artificial Intelligence: An Outsider's Perspective," Science and Public Policy 13 (December 1986): 333-40; David Oldman and Charles Drucker, "The Nonreducibility of Ethno-Methods: Can People and Computers Form a Society?" in Gilbert and Heath, Social Action and Artificial Intelligence , 144-59; and Steve Woolger, "Why Not a Sociology of Machines? The Case of Sociology and Artificial Intelligence," Sociology 19 (November 1985): 557-72.

59. Edward E. Brent, "Knowledge-Based Systems: A Qualitative Formalism," Qualitative Sociology 9 (Fall 1986): 256-82; Robert R. Weaver, "Some Implications of the Emergence and Diffusion of Medical Expert Systems," Qualitative Sociology 9 (Fall 1986): 237-57; and the collected articles in Gilbert and Heath, Social Action and Artificial Intelligence .

60. See especially Niklas Luhmann, Ecological Communication , trans. John Bednarz, Jr. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989).

61. Charles Horton Cooley, Human Nature and the Social Order (New York: Schocken Books, 1964), 81-97.

62. Turkle, The Second Self , 81, 83.

63. Cited in Allman, Apprentices of Wonder , 186.

64. Heinz Pagels, The Dreams of Reason (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1988), 192-94.

65. Ibid., 193.

66. Jerry Fodor, "Methodological Solipsism," in Haugland, Mind Design , 315.

67. Dennett, Brainstorms , 3-22.

68. Niklas Luhmann, Essays on Self-Reference (New York: Columbia University Press, 1990), 21-79.

69. For representative examples, see Richard A. Shweder, Thinking Through Cultures: Explorations in Cultural Psychology (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1991); James V. Wertsch, Voices of the Mind: A Sociocultural Approach to Mediated Action (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1991); and Alan Page Fiske, Structures of Social Life: The Four Elementary Forms of Human Relations (New York: Free Press, 1991).

70. Jerome Bruner, Acts of Meaning (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1990), 4.