1. Meredith Borthwick, The Changing Role of Women in Bengal , 117.

2. Kenneth W. Jones, Arya Dbarm , 95, 99. Vatuk and Vatuk state, "The movement's founder, Dayanand, was quite explicit in his writings about the evils of dramatic performances." Ved Prakash Vatuk and Sylvia Vatuk, "The Ethnography of Sang , A North Indian Folk Opera," in Ved Prakash Vatuk, ed., Studies in Indian Folk Traditions , 30.

3. Kathryn Hansen, "The Birth of Hindi Drama in Banaras," in Sandria B. Freitag, ed., Culture and Power in Banaras , 86.

4. Jonas Barish, The Antitheatrical Prejudice .

5. Sumanta Banerjee, "Marginalization of Women's Popular Culture in Nineteenth-Century Bengal," in Kumkum Sangari and Sudesh Vaid, eds., Recasting Women , 131, 130.

6. " Zenana women were said to sustain the existence of the Calcutta theater. If men were to stop their wives from going, many theaters would have had to close down." Borthwick, Changing Role of Women , 268; see also 18, 269.

7. Banerjee, "Marginalization of Women's Popular Culture," 132.

8. Amrit Srinivasan, "The Hindu Temple-Dancer: Prostitute or Nun?" Cambridge Anthropology 8, no. 1 (1983): 73-99; Amrit Srinivasan, "Reform and Revival: The Devadasi and Her Dance," Economic and Political Weekly , Nov. 2, 1985, 1869-1876.

9. Srinivasan, "Reform and Revival," 1875.

10. "The transformation of Odissi from a regional traditional form of dance to a nationally recognized 'classical' form of dance... also meant the creation of a new ideological framework ... one that fitted the new national consciousness of the educated elite. That consciousness made it impossible for the revivalists to invite the devadasis to participate in the seminars which took place in the 1950s to establish Odissi as a classical.form of dance." Frédérique Apffel Marglin, Wives of the God-King , 28.

11. Nancy Armstrong and Leonard Tennenhouse, eds., The Ideology of Conduct , 21, 20.

12. Roger Chartier, Cultural History , 4-5.

13. Borthwick, Changing Role of Women , 194-197.

14. Malika Begam, personal interview by Kathryn Hansen and Jugal Kishor, Lucknow, July 15, 1982.

15. "It is indeed striking to observe how the political, psychological, and aesthetic discourse around the turn of the century consistently and obsessively genders mass culture and the masses as feminine, while high culture, whether traditional or modern, clearly remains the privileged realm of male activities." Andreas Huyssen, "Mass; Culture as Woman: Modernism's Other," in Tania Modleski, ed., Studies in Entertainment , 191.

16. Tania Modleski, introduction to Studies in Entertainment , xviii.

17. Huyssen, "Mass Culture as Woman," 205.

18. Raymond Williams, Culture , 187.

19. Carole M. Farber, "Performing Social and Cultural Change: The Jatra of West Bengal, India," South Asian Anthropologist 5, no. 2 (1984): 124.

20. Alf Hiltebeitel, The Cult of Draupadi , 1:153.

21. Girish Karnad, "Theatre in India," Daedalus 118, no. 4 (Fall 1989): 336.

22. Victor W. Turner:, The Ritual Process , chaps. 3-5, and From Ritual to Theatre .

23. Mikhail Bakhtin, Rabelais and His World , 10.

24. Ibid., 268-275.

23. Mikhail Bakhtin, Rabelais and His World , 10.

24. Ibid., 268-275.

25. David Hall summarizes and critiques these studies in his introduction to Steven L. Kaplan, ed., Understanding Popular Culture , 5-18.

26. Some familiar examples of status reversal include the king becoming an ascetic ( Gopichand, Raghuvir simh ), the king becoming an untouchable ( Harishchandra ), the child becoming a preacher to adults ( Prahlad, Dhuru ), the outlaw becoming a respected leader ( Sultana daku ), the man becoming a woman and the woman becoming a man ( Rani nautanki ).

27. Badal Sircar, The Third Theatre , 25-27.

28. Rajinder Nath, foreword to Girish Karnad, Hayavadana , trans. B. V. Karanth.

29. Safdar Hashmi, The Right to Perform .

30. Natalie Zemon Davis, Society and Culture in Early Modern France , 97.

31. Stephen Heath and Gillian Skirrow, "An Interview with Raymond Williams," in Tania Modleski, ed., Studies in Entertainment , 10.

32. Karnad, "Theatre in India," 338, 349.

33. For a discussion of their work, see Vasudha Dalmia-Lüderitz, "To Be More Brechtian is to be more Indian: On the Theatre of Habib Tanvir," in Erika Fischer-Lichte et al., eds., The Dramatic Touch of Difference , 221-235; Kathryn Hansen, "Indian Folk Traditions and the Modern Theatre," Asian Folklore Studies 42, no. 1 (1983): 77-89.

34. Natya Samaroh 1984 festival brochure.

35. James Christopher, "Going for Gogol," in Time Out (London), Jan. 11-18, 1989. This clipping and one by David Spark entitled "Indian theatre bridges cultural gulf" ( The Hindu , Feb. 28, 1989) were kindly given to me by Bill Buxton.