1. Reuben Gold Thwaites, ed., The Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents: Travels and Explorations of the Jesuit Missionaries in New France, 1610-1791 , 73 vols. (Cleveland: Burrows, 1896-1901; reprinted New York: Pageant, 1959), 18:105-7 (hereafter cited as Jesuit Relations ). New France comprised the area above the St. Lawrence from Labrador to Winnipeg.

2. Ibid., 95-107.

1. Reuben Gold Thwaites, ed., The Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents: Travels and Explorations of the Jesuit Missionaries in New France, 1610-1791 , 73 vols. (Cleveland: Burrows, 1896-1901; reprinted New York: Pageant, 1959), 18:105-7 (hereafter cited as Jesuit Relations ). New France comprised the area above the St. Lawrence from Labrador to Winnipeg.

2. Ibid., 95-107.

3. Karen Anderson, "Commodity Exchange and Subordination: Montagnais-Naskapi and Huron Women, 1600-1650," Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 11, no. 1 (1985): 49-62.

4. Jesuit Relations , intro., 1:1-44.

5. Linguists have divided the Algonquian language family into two branches. The northern, Cree, branch includes the Cree, Montagnais, and Naskapi dialects; the southern, Ojibwa, branch includes the Chippewa, Saulteaux, Ottawa, and Algonquin dialects. Each branch is considered to be a single language with dialectical varieties. Cree is spoken throughout the Quebec-Labrador peninsula, the Hudson Bay coast of Ontario, central Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta. Ojibwa dialects are spoken immediately to the south, from southwest Quebec, through the upper Great Lakes, and into southern Manitoba and Saskatchewan. See Richard A. Rhodes and Evelyn M. Todd,

"Subarctic Algonquian Languages," in Handbook of North American Indians , vol. 6: Subarctic , ed. June Helm (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1981), 52-66.

6. For a discussion of the potential of regional history as an alternative to studies of single "tribes," see Reginald Horsman, "Welltrodden Paths and Fresh Byways: Recent Writing on Native American History," Reviews in American History 10, no. 4 (1982): 234-44. See also Bruce G. Trigger, "American Archaeology as Native History: A Review Essay," William and Mary Quarterly 40 (1983): 413-52; Robert F. Berkhofer, Jr., "The Political Context of a New Indian History, Pacific Historical Review 40 (1971): 357-82.

7. For discussions of the usefulness and techniques of an ethnohistorical approach combining historical and ethnological data, see Eleanor Leacock, "Montagnais Women and the Jesuit Program for Colonization," in Women and Colonization: Anthropological Perspectives , ed. Mona Etienne and Eleanor Leacock (New York: Praeger, 1980), 25-42; Calvin Martin, Keepers of the Game: Indian-Animal Relationships and the Fur Trade (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1978), 7, 71; A. Irving Hallowell, Culture and Experience (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1955), 127; James Axtell, "Ethnohistory: A Historian's Viewpoint," in The European and the Indian: Essays in the Ethnohistory of Colonial North America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1981).

8. Jesuit Relations 5:133.

9. Ibid., 16:163. See Eleanor Leacock, "Women's Status in Egalitarian Society: Implications for Social Evolution," Current Anthropology 19, no. 2 (1978): 247-75, for a discussion of the problem of defining egalitarian social structure in relation to a sexual division of labor, decision making, and relationships to resources. See Anderson, "Commodity Exchange and Subordination," for a critique of Leacock.

8. Jesuit Relations 5:133.

9. Ibid., 16:163. See Eleanor Leacock, "Women's Status in Egalitarian Society: Implications for Social Evolution," Current Anthropology 19, no. 2 (1978): 247-75, for a discussion of the problem of defining egalitarian social structure in relation to a sexual division of labor, decision making, and relationships to resources. See Anderson, "Commodity Exchange and Subordination," for a critique of Leacock.

10. For more on men's role as hunter, see Hallowell, Culture and Experience , 361; Ruth Landes, Ojibwa Religion and the Midewiwin (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1968), 7, 25, 35; Ruth Landes, The Ojibwa Woman (New York: Norton Library, 1971), viii; Adrian Tanner, Bringing Home Animals: Religious Ideology and Mode of Production of the Mistassini Cree Hunters , Social and Economic Studies, no. 23 (St. John's, Newfoundland: Institute of Social and Economic Research, Memorial University of Newfoundland, 1979), 137-38, 151; Frank G. Speck, Naskapi: The Savage Hunters of the Labrador Peninsula (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1935), 76-81. The pattern of communication and dependence on animal spirits and supernaturals found among modern eastern subarctic groups is evident as

well in historical sources; see Jesuit Relations 6:159, 213, 215; 7:163. See also Martin, Keepers of the Game , 119-22; and Calvin Martin, "Subarctic Indians and Wildlife," in Old Trails and New Directions: Papers of the Third North American Fur Trade Conference , ed. Carol M. Judd and Arthur J. Ray (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1979), 73-81. Landes ( Ojibwa Religion , 35) was told by her informants that without the aid of supernatural guardians men were "empty, fearful, and cowardly" for life. Hallowell ( Culture and Experience , 360-61) was struck by the urgency with which Saulteaux Ojibwa men sought to establish spiritual alliances: "It was absolutely imperative that males, rather than females, seek out and obtain superhuman aid. Women might obtain such help; men could not get along without it." Historical sources also document men's need for supernatural aid; see Jesuit Relations 6:213, 7:61; Chrestien Le Clercq, New Relation of Gaspesia: With the Customs and Religion of the Gaspesian Indians (1691), trans. and ed. William F. Ganong (Toronto: Champlain Society, 1910; reprinted New York: Greenwood Press, 1968), 225-29.

11. Edward S. Rogers and James G. E. Smith, "Environment and Culture in the Shield and Mackenzie Borderlands," in Helm, Subarctic , 130-45; Robert E. Ritzenthaler, "Southwestern Chippewa," in Handbook of North American Indians , vol. 15: Northeast , ed. Bruce G. Trigger (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1978), 743-59.

12. Hallowell, Culture and Experience , 92, 178, 205; Landes, Ojibwa Woman , 18; Tanner, Bringing Home Animals , 176-77.

13. Ritzenthaler, "Southwestern Chippewa"; Nicolas Denys, The Description and Natural History of the Coasts of North America (Acadia) (1672), trans. and ed. William F. Ganong (Toronto: Champlain Society, 1908; reprinted New York: Greenwood Press, 1968), 422; Jesuit Relations 16:83.

14. Jesuit Relations 6:233. Le Clercq ( New Relation , 119) also noted that women were in charge of distributing meat.

15. Leacock, "Women's Status in Egalitarian Society"; Tanner, Bringing Home Animals , 176-77.

16. Denys, Description and Natural History , 404; Jesuit Relations 16:67. See also Marc Lescarbot, Nova Francia, a Description of Acadia (1606) (New York: Harper, 1928), 153. The concept of women's childbearing activities as a source of status and power within the family is examined in Patricia Draper, "!Kung Women: Contrasts in Sexual Egalitarianism in Foraging and Sedentary Contexts," in Toward an Anthropology of Women , ed. Rayna R. Reiter (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1975), 77-109; and Mary C. Wright, "Economic Development and Native American Women in the Early Nineteenth Century,"

American Quarterly 33 (1981): 525-36. See also Leacock, "Women's Status in Egalitarian Society"; Jesuit Relations 3: 109; Sieur de Diereville, Relation of the Voyage to Port Royal in Acadia of New France (1708), trans. Mrs. Clarence Webster, ed. John Clarence Webster (Toronto: Champlain Society, 1933), 148; Ellice Becker Gonzalez, "The Changing Economic Roles for Micmac Men and Women: An Ethnohistorical Analysis" (Ph.D. diss., State University of New York at Stony Brook, 1979), 37. For further descriptions of women's responsibilities, see Jesuit Relations 2:77, 3:247; Lescarbot, Nova Francia , 253; Le Clercq, New Relation , 102, 162; Gonzalez, "Changing Economic Roles," 47; Tanner, Bringing Home Animals , 176, 178-80.

17. Jesuit Relations 9:113; see also 9:119, 14:183. Landes, Ojibwa Religion , 40-41, and Ojibwa Woman , 163, describes twentieth-century women's shamanistic activities.

18. Le Clercq, New Relation , 293-94. See also Jesuit Relations 6:191, 219, 279; 9:121. The rear limbs of beaver, bear, and caribou are also women's special foods among some twentieth-century Cree and Montagnais-Naskapi bands; see Tanner, Bringing Home Animals , 161-62; Speck, Naskapi , 96; Philip K. Bock, "Micmac," in Trigger, Northeast , 109-22.

19. Women's spiritual potency is recounted in Jesuit Relations 9:123, 3:105; Denys, Description and Natural History , 409-10; Diereville, Relation of the Voyage to Port Royal , 162; Diamond Jenness, The Ojibwa Indians of Parry Island: Their Social and Religious Life , Canada Department of Mines, National Museum of Canada, Bulletin no. 78, Anthropological Series, no. 17 (Ottawa: J. O. Patenuade, 1935), 96-97; Landes, Ojibwa Religion , 40-41.

20. See, for example, Christopher Vecsey, Traditional Ojibwa Religion and Its Historical Changes (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1983), 45. The following studies, however, indicate that the impact of contact at times was quite severe: Leacock, "Montagnais Women"; Cornelius J. Jaenen, Friend and Foe: Aspects of French-Amerindian Cultural Contact in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries (New York: Columbia University Press, 1976); Cornelius J. Jaenen, "Conceptual Frameworks for French Views of America and Amerindians," French Colonial Studies 2 (1978): 1-22; also Alfred Goldsworthy Bailey, The Conflict of European and Eastern Algonkian Cultures, 1504-1700: A Study in Canadian Civilization , New Brunswick Museum Monographic Series, no. 2 (St. John, 1937; reprinted Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1979), 114.

21. See Elman R. Service, Primitive Social Organization: An Evolutionary Perspective (New York: Random House, 1962), 108-9, for an

explanation of band structure; and Leacock, "Women's Status in Egalitarian Society."

22. Bruce G. Trigger, The Children of Aataentsic: A History of the Huron People to 1660 , 2 vols. (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1976), examines precontact trade patterns along the St. Lawrence.

23. Denys, Description and Natural History , 426; also 403; Gonzalez, "Changing Economic Roles," 84-89.

24. Jesuit Relations 1:173; also 3:95; Bailey, Conflict , 6.

25. Jesuit Relations 5:171.

26. Ibid., 1:87.

27. Ibid., 16:33; W. J. Eccles, The Canadian Frontier, 1534-1760 (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1969), 32.

25. Jesuit Relations 5:171.

26. Ibid., 1:87.

27. Ibid., 16:33; W. J. Eccles, The Canadian Frontier, 1534-1760 (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1969), 32.

25. Jesuit Relations 5:171.

26. Ibid., 1:87.

27. Ibid., 16:33; W. J. Eccles, The Canadian Frontier, 1534-1760 (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1969), 32.

28. Louis Armand de Lom d'Arce, baron de Lahontan, New Voyages to North America (1703), ed. Reuben Gold Thwaites (New York: Burt Franklin, 1905; reprinted New York: Lenox Hill, 1970), 2:420.

29. Jesuit Relations , intro., 1:xxxi-xxxiii.

30. Ibid., 4:207.

29. Jesuit Relations , intro., 1:xxxi-xxxiii.

30. Ibid., 4:207.

31. Denys, Description and Natural History , 187; also Gonzalez, "Changing Economic Roles," 90; Eleanor Leacock, "The Montagnais 'Hunting Territory' and the Fur Trade," American Anthropological Memoirs , no. 78 (Menasha, Wis.: American Anthropological Association, 1954), 7, 26; Harold A. Innis, The Fur Trade in Canada: An Introduction to Canadian Economic History , rev. ed. (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1956), 16.

32. Jesuit Relations 3:69.

33. Ibid., 4:207.

34. Ibid., 5:25.

35. Ibid., 3:77.

32. Jesuit Relations 3:69.

33. Ibid., 4:207.

34. Ibid., 5:25.

35. Ibid., 3:77.

32. Jesuit Relations 3:69.

33. Ibid., 4:207.

34. Ibid., 5:25.

35. Ibid., 3:77.

32. Jesuit Relations 3:69.

33. Ibid., 4:207.

34. Ibid., 5:25.

35. Ibid., 3:77.

36. Richard J. Perry, "The Fur Trade and the Status of Women in the Western Subarctic," Ethnohistory 26, no. 4 (1979): 363-75, suggests that changing productive patterns among Athabascans of the western subarctic decreased women's social, economic, and personal authority and lowered their status. Judith Brown, "Iroquois Women: An Ethnohistoric Note," in Reiter, Toward an Anthropology of Women , 235-51, demonstrates that Iroquois women's high status was related directly to control over their work and its product. Mona Etienne, "Women and Men, Cloth and Colonization: The Trasformation of Production-Distribution Relations Among the Baule (Ivory Coast)," in Etienne and Leacock, Women and Colonization , 214-38, illustrates a loss of power among contemporary Baule women.

37. Gonzalez, "Changing Economic Roles," 53-57, 99, 105; Wright, "Economic Development," sees coast and seaboard Salish

women as "invisible employees" of the fur trade who worked for their husbands and experienced a noticeable loss in economic power.

38. Calvin Martin, "The Four Lives of a Micmac Copper Pot," Ethnohistory 22, no. 2 (1975): 111-33; Innis, Fur Trade , 18.

39. Jesuit Relations 68:93.

40. Denys, Description and Natural History , 405; Gonzalez, "Changing Economic Roles," 46. Iron hatchets were another item that, while making firewood collection easier for women, also made frequent moves more feasible.

41. Jesuit Relations 6:273; also Marc Lescarbot, The History of New France (1618), trans. by W. L. Grant, 3 vols. (Toronto: The Champlain Society, 1907-1914; reprinted Greenwood Press, 1968), 1:310, 320.

42. Denys, Description and Natural History , 447-49; Gonzalez, "Changing Economic Roles," 53-58, 95-99. Harold Hickerson, "The Chippewa of the Upper Great Lakes: A Study in Sociopolitical Change," in North American Indians in Historical Perspective , ed. by Eleanor Burke Leacock and Nancy Oestreich Lurie (New York: Random House, 1971), 186, describes "individualization of the distribution of food" and dependence on European food among Chippewa.

43. Gonzalez, "Changing Economic Roles," 102-3; Perry, "Fur Trade and the Status of Women."

44. Jesuit Relations 12:123. See also James P. Ronda, "The European Indian: Jesuit Civilization Planning in New France," Church History 41, no. 3 (1972): 385-95.

45. Jesuit Relations 3:123; also 1:172; Le Clercq, New Relation , 104; Cornelius J. Jaenen, "Amerindian Views of French Culture in the Seventeenth Century," Canadian Historical Review 55, no. 3 (1974): 261-91; James Ronda, in "'We Are Well As We Are': An Indian Critique of Seventeenth-Century Christian Missions," William and Mary Quarterly 24, no. 1 (1977): 66-82, maintains that women and men both reacted against the Christian dogma of sin, guilt, damnation, and baptism. Some accepted Christianity, "but whatever their responses, Indian peoples did demonstrate that their traditions were dynamic intellectual systems, capable of change" (67).

46. Jesuit Relations 14:205; also Ronda, "European Indian." James Axtell describes Sillery as "the Christian showplace of Laurentian Canada" during its early years ( The Invasion Within: The Contest of Cultures in Colonial North America [New York: Oxford University Press, 1985], 61).

47. Jesuit Relations 14:213-15.

48. Ibid., 16:199; also 57:239, 62:39.

49. Ibid., 18:39-41; also 24:209-13.

50. Ibid., 6:143; also 6:135, 12:141.

51. Ibid., 5:145; also 16:59; 18:137; 20:191.

47. Jesuit Relations 14:213-15.

48. Ibid., 16:199; also 57:239, 62:39.

49. Ibid., 18:39-41; also 24:209-13.

50. Ibid., 6:143; also 6:135, 12:141.

51. Ibid., 5:145; also 16:59; 18:137; 20:191.

47. Jesuit Relations 14:213-15.

48. Ibid., 16:199; also 57:239, 62:39.

49. Ibid., 18:39-41; also 24:209-13.

50. Ibid., 6:143; also 6:135, 12:141.

51. Ibid., 5:145; also 16:59; 18:137; 20:191.

47. Jesuit Relations 14:213-15.

48. Ibid., 16:199; also 57:239, 62:39.

49. Ibid., 18:39-41; also 24:209-13.

50. Ibid., 6:143; also 6:135, 12:141.

51. Ibid., 5:145; also 16:59; 18:137; 20:191.

47. Jesuit Relations 14:213-15.

48. Ibid., 16:199; also 57:239, 62:39.

49. Ibid., 18:39-41; also 24:209-13.

50. Ibid., 6:143; also 6:135, 12:141.

51. Ibid., 5:145; also 16:59; 18:137; 20:191.

52. Leacock, "Montagnais Women"; Jesuit Relations 14:263.

53. Jesuit Relations 32:289.

54. Ibid., 37:43 (Rageuneau), 58:277 (André); see also 62:45. Fr. Jacques Bigot at the Sillery-Abnaki mission commented in 1681 that some Indian women used iron girdles for self-mortification.

55. Ibid., 22:83, 16:61.

56. Ibid., 18:105-7.

53. Jesuit Relations 32:289.

54. Ibid., 37:43 (Rageuneau), 58:277 (André); see also 62:45. Fr. Jacques Bigot at the Sillery-Abnaki mission commented in 1681 that some Indian women used iron girdles for self-mortification.

55. Ibid., 22:83, 16:61.

56. Ibid., 18:105-7.

53. Jesuit Relations 32:289.

54. Ibid., 37:43 (Rageuneau), 58:277 (André); see also 62:45. Fr. Jacques Bigot at the Sillery-Abnaki mission commented in 1681 that some Indian women used iron girdles for self-mortification.

55. Ibid., 22:83, 16:61.

56. Ibid., 18:105-7.

53. Jesuit Relations 32:289.

54. Ibid., 37:43 (Rageuneau), 58:277 (André); see also 62:45. Fr. Jacques Bigot at the Sillery-Abnaki mission commented in 1681 that some Indian women used iron girdles for self-mortification.

55. Ibid., 22:83, 16:61.

56. Ibid., 18:105-7.

57. Louise S. Spindler, Menomini Women and Culture Change , American Anthropological Association Memoir no. 91 (Menasha, Wis.: American Anthropological Association, 1962), found that many Menomini women, regardless of their "acculturation" level (including those who were practicing Christians), covertly retained many older concepts of female identity.

58. Le Clercq, New Relation , 229.

59. Jesuit Relations 56:23-25, 79; 58:89; among Hurons, 55:23. See also Bailey, Conflict , 100; Jacqueline Louise Peterson, "The People in Between: Indian-White Marriage and the Genesis of a Metis Society and Culture in the Great Lakes Region, 1680-1830" (Ph.D. diss., University of Illinois at Chicago Circle, 1981). Michelle Zimbalist Rosaldo, "Woman, Culture, and Society: A Theoretical Overview," in Woman, Culture, and Society , ed. Michelle Zimbalist Rosaldo and Louise Lamphere (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1974), 17-42, considers the role of convents in Western culture.

60. Lahontan, New Voyages 2:463.

61. Jesuit Relations 20:195-97; also Marie de L'Incarnation, Word from New France: The Selected Letters of Marie de l'Incarnation , trans. and ed. Joyce Marshall (Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1967), 85-88; Bailey, Conflict , 104.

62. Jesuit Relations 22:83; also 20:191.

63. Ibid., 22:85.

64. Ibid., 81-85; also 18:155, 22:117-21, 24:47-49, 26:99.

65. Ibid., 54:143, 145.

66. Ibid., 57:269.

67. Ibid., 273.

62. Jesuit Relations 22:83; also 20:191.

63. Ibid., 22:85.

64. Ibid., 81-85; also 18:155, 22:117-21, 24:47-49, 26:99.

65. Ibid., 54:143, 145.

66. Ibid., 57:269.

67. Ibid., 273.

62. Jesuit Relations 22:83; also 20:191.

63. Ibid., 22:85.

64. Ibid., 81-85; also 18:155, 22:117-21, 24:47-49, 26:99.

65. Ibid., 54:143, 145.

66. Ibid., 57:269.

67. Ibid., 273.

62. Jesuit Relations 22:83; also 20:191.

63. Ibid., 22:85.

64. Ibid., 81-85; also 18:155, 22:117-21, 24:47-49, 26:99.

65. Ibid., 54:143, 145.

66. Ibid., 57:269.

67. Ibid., 273.

62. Jesuit Relations 22:83; also 20:191.

63. Ibid., 22:85.

64. Ibid., 81-85; also 18:155, 22:117-21, 24:47-49, 26:99.

65. Ibid., 54:143, 145.

66. Ibid., 57:269.

67. Ibid., 273.

62. Jesuit Relations 22:83; also 20:191.

63. Ibid., 22:85.

64. Ibid., 81-85; also 18:155, 22:117-21, 24:47-49, 26:99.

65. Ibid., 54:143, 145.

66. Ibid., 57:269.

67. Ibid., 273.

68. Martin, Keepers of the Game , 50-62.

69. Jesuit Relations 1:257; also Jaenen, Friend and Foe. Edmund S. Morgan, American Slavery, American Freedom: The Ordeal of Colonial Virginia (New York: Norton, 1975), 63, discusses the attitudes of European gentlemen toward labor.

70. Carolyn C. Lougee, Le Paradis des Femmes: Women, Salons, and Social Stratification in Seventeenth-Century France (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1976), 209, William V. Bangert, S.J., A History of the Society of Jesus (St. Louis: Institute of Jesuit Sources, 1972).

71. Le Clercq, New Relation , 263.

72. Jesuit Relations 5:181-83.

73. Ibid., 18:35, 155; 22:81-85. Leacock, ''Montagnais Women."

72. Jesuit Relations 5:181-83.

73. Ibid., 18:35, 155; 22:81-85. Leacock, ''Montagnais Women."

74. Jesuit Relations 50:291; also 6:253; Denys, Description and Natural History , 415.

75. Jesuit Relations 24:47.

76. Pierre Boucher, True and Genuine Description of New France, Commonly Called Canada, and of the Manners and Customs and Productions of That Country (1664), translated by Edward Louis Montizambert (Montreal: George E. Desbarats, 1883), 56.

77. Jesuit Relations 16:41; also 5:111, 7:143; Le Clercq, New Relation, 242; Denys, Description and Natural History , 411.

78. Jesuit Relations 14:263.

79. Ibid., 6:225.

80. Ibid., 22:81-85; also 5:181, 6:255, 18:155, 22:117-21, 24:47-49, 26:99.

81. Ibid., 12:165 (quote), 55:111, 56:215; see also Leacock, "Montagnais Women," on Jesuit attempts to institute monogamy and marital fidelity.

78. Jesuit Relations 14:263.

79. Ibid., 6:225.

80. Ibid., 22:81-85; also 5:181, 6:255, 18:155, 22:117-21, 24:47-49, 26:99.

81. Ibid., 12:165 (quote), 55:111, 56:215; see also Leacock, "Montagnais Women," on Jesuit attempts to institute monogamy and marital fidelity.

78. Jesuit Relations 14:263.

79. Ibid., 6:225.

80. Ibid., 22:81-85; also 5:181, 6:255, 18:155, 22:117-21, 24:47-49, 26:99.

81. Ibid., 12:165 (quote), 55:111, 56:215; see also Leacock, "Montagnais Women," on Jesuit attempts to institute monogamy and marital fidelity.

78. Jesuit Relations 14:263.

79. Ibid., 6:225.

80. Ibid., 22:81-85; also 5:181, 6:255, 18:155, 22:117-21, 24:47-49, 26:99.

81. Ibid., 12:165 (quote), 55:111, 56:215; see also Leacock, "Montagnais Women," on Jesuit attempts to institute monogamy and marital fidelity.

82. Jesuit Relations 25:109.

83. Ibid., 55:129-31; also 57:217.

82. Jesuit Relations 25:109.

83. Ibid., 55:129-31; also 57:217.

84. Jesuit Relations 36:197, 201; 16:33.

85. Eleanor Leacock, "Seventeenth-Century Montagnais Social Relations and Values," in Helm, Subarctic , 190-95. For analyses of the impact of the public-private division on women's status, see Karen Sacks, "Engels Revisited: Women, the Organization of Production, and Private Property," in Reiter, Toward an Anthropology of Women , 211-34; and Peggy R. Sanday, "Female Status in the Public Domain," in Rosaldo and Lamphere, Woman, Culture, and Society , 189-206.

86. Jesuit Relations 5:179; 6:255; 18:135, 155; 22:81-85. On the development of the independent nuclear family following dependence on the fur trade, see Leacock, "Women's Status in Egalitarian Society"; Edward S. Rogers, "The Mistassini Cree," in Hunters and Gatherers Today: A Socioeconomic Study of Eleven Such Cultures in the Twentieth Century, ed. M. G. Bicchiere (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1972), 133; and Eleanor Leacock, "The Montagnais-Naskapi Band," in Contributions to Anthropology: Band Societies , ed. David Damas, National Museum of Canada, Bulletin no. 228, An-

thropological Series, no. 84 (Ottawa: The Queen's Printer, 1969), 1-17.

87. Jesuit Relations 26:113-15, 29:107; Leacock, ''Montagnais 'Hunting Territory'"; and Eleanor Leacock, "Matrilocality in a Simple Hunting Economy (Montagnais-Naskapi)," Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 11, no. 1 (1955): 31-47.

88. Jesuit Relations 6:297-99, 20:187-89, 24:209, 29:163, 37:59.

89. Ibid., 2:77; also 3:133, 14:233, 16:37.

88. Jesuit Relations 6:297-99, 20:187-89, 24:209, 29:163, 37:59.

89. Ibid., 2:77; also 3:133, 14:233, 16:37.

90. Martin, Keepers of the Game , 53-65.

91. Leacock, "Montagnais-Naskapi Band" and "Matrilocality"; Charles A. Bishop and Shepard Krech III, "Matriorganization: The Basis of Aboriginal Subarctic Social Organization," Arctic Anthropology 17, no. 2 (1980): 34-45; Jesuit Relations 30:169.