1. Politics , 257, n. 20.

2. See Meyer Schapiro, "Style," in Aesthetics Today , ed. and intro. Morris Philipson (New York: Meridian Books, 1970), 91. See also Erwin Panofsky, Early Netherlandish Painting (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1953), vol. 1, 66 and 70.

3. Early Netherlandish Painting , vol. 1, 70. For further discussion of this point, see below at n. 31. break

4. For a recent discussion of late medieval landscape and depiction of the peasantry, see Jonathan J. G. Alexander, " Labeur and Paresse : Ideological Representations of Medieval Peasant Labor," AB 72/3 (1990): 436-52.

5. Politiques , 256.

6. Ibid., 371. Prof. Melvin Richter has pointed out that the correct etymology is arche , meaning rule.

7. Ibid., 261.

8. Ibid.

9. Ibid.

10. Ibid., 360-62 and 364-65.

11. Ibid., " Pasteurs ," 365.

12. Ibid., 263.

13. Ibid., 261. The translation from the Georgics (2, 458) is that of H. R. Fairclough, Eclogues, Georgics, Aeneid, 1-6 , vol. 1 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, Loeb Classical Library, 1986).

5. Politiques , 256.

6. Ibid., 371. Prof. Melvin Richter has pointed out that the correct etymology is arche , meaning rule.

7. Ibid., 261.

8. Ibid.

9. Ibid.

10. Ibid., 360-62 and 364-65.

11. Ibid., " Pasteurs ," 365.

12. Ibid., 263.

13. Ibid., 261. The translation from the Georgics (2, 458) is that of H. R. Fairclough, Eclogues, Georgics, Aeneid, 1-6 , vol. 1 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, Loeb Classical Library, 1986).

5. Politiques , 256.

6. Ibid., 371. Prof. Melvin Richter has pointed out that the correct etymology is arche , meaning rule.

7. Ibid., 261.

8. Ibid.

9. Ibid.

10. Ibid., 360-62 and 364-65.

11. Ibid., " Pasteurs ," 365.

12. Ibid., 263.

13. Ibid., 261. The translation from the Georgics (2, 458) is that of H. R. Fairclough, Eclogues, Georgics, Aeneid, 1-6 , vol. 1 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, Loeb Classical Library, 1986).

5. Politiques , 256.

6. Ibid., 371. Prof. Melvin Richter has pointed out that the correct etymology is arche , meaning rule.

7. Ibid., 261.

8. Ibid.

9. Ibid.

10. Ibid., 360-62 and 364-65.

11. Ibid., " Pasteurs ," 365.

12. Ibid., 263.

13. Ibid., 261. The translation from the Georgics (2, 458) is that of H. R. Fairclough, Eclogues, Georgics, Aeneid, 1-6 , vol. 1 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, Loeb Classical Library, 1986).

5. Politiques , 256.

6. Ibid., 371. Prof. Melvin Richter has pointed out that the correct etymology is arche , meaning rule.

7. Ibid., 261.

8. Ibid.

9. Ibid.

10. Ibid., 360-62 and 364-65.

11. Ibid., " Pasteurs ," 365.

12. Ibid., 263.

13. Ibid., 261. The translation from the Georgics (2, 458) is that of H. R. Fairclough, Eclogues, Georgics, Aeneid, 1-6 , vol. 1 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, Loeb Classical Library, 1986).

5. Politiques , 256.

6. Ibid., 371. Prof. Melvin Richter has pointed out that the correct etymology is arche , meaning rule.

7. Ibid., 261.

8. Ibid.

9. Ibid.

10. Ibid., 360-62 and 364-65.

11. Ibid., " Pasteurs ," 365.

12. Ibid., 263.

13. Ibid., 261. The translation from the Georgics (2, 458) is that of H. R. Fairclough, Eclogues, Georgics, Aeneid, 1-6 , vol. 1 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, Loeb Classical Library, 1986).

5. Politiques , 256.

6. Ibid., 371. Prof. Melvin Richter has pointed out that the correct etymology is arche , meaning rule.

7. Ibid., 261.

8. Ibid.

9. Ibid.

10. Ibid., 360-62 and 364-65.

11. Ibid., " Pasteurs ," 365.

12. Ibid., 263.

13. Ibid., 261. The translation from the Georgics (2, 458) is that of H. R. Fairclough, Eclogues, Georgics, Aeneid, 1-6 , vol. 1 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, Loeb Classical Library, 1986).

5. Politiques , 256.

6. Ibid., 371. Prof. Melvin Richter has pointed out that the correct etymology is arche , meaning rule.

7. Ibid., 261.

8. Ibid.

9. Ibid.

10. Ibid., 360-62 and 364-65.

11. Ibid., " Pasteurs ," 365.

12. Ibid., 263.

13. Ibid., 261. The translation from the Georgics (2, 458) is that of H. R. Fairclough, Eclogues, Georgics, Aeneid, 1-6 , vol. 1 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, Loeb Classical Library, 1986).

5. Politiques , 256.

6. Ibid., 371. Prof. Melvin Richter has pointed out that the correct etymology is arche , meaning rule.

7. Ibid., 261.

8. Ibid.

9. Ibid.

10. Ibid., 360-62 and 364-65.

11. Ibid., " Pasteurs ," 365.

12. Ibid., 263.

13. Ibid., 261. The translation from the Georgics (2, 458) is that of H. R. Fairclough, Eclogues, Georgics, Aeneid, 1-6 , vol. 1 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, Loeb Classical Library, 1986).

14. Politiques , 263.

15. Ibid., 261.

16. Ibid.

17. Ibid., 262.

14. Politiques , 263.

15. Ibid., 261.

16. Ibid.

17. Ibid., 262.

14. Politiques , 263.

15. Ibid., 261.

16. Ibid.

17. Ibid., 262.

14. Politiques , 263.

15. Ibid., 261.

16. Ibid.

17. Ibid., 262.

18. Politics , VI.4 1318a. Rackham's translation of this passage states that even if they do not elect the magistrates "as at Mantinea, yet if they have the power of deliberating on policy, the multitude are satisfied" (Aristotle, Politics , trans. H. Rackham [Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, Loeb Classical Library, 1972], VI.2 1318b).

19. Politiques , 262.

20. Ibid.

19. Politiques , 262.

20. Ibid.

21. Babbitt, Oresme's Livre de Politiques , 64. The author translates Oresme's gloss on this process, which is found in the Politiques , Book VI, Ch. 3, 261.

22. It is possible that the buildings and field on the upper right may be the subject of this dispute or deliberation. break

23. Michael Camille, "Labouring for the Lord: The Ploughman and the Social Order in the Luttrell Psalter," Art History 10/4 (1987): 426; Robert G. Calkins, Programs of Medieval Illumination , The Franklin D. Murphy Lectures, 5 (Lawrence, Kans.: Helen Foresman Spencer Museum of Art, 1984), 139. In Camille's note 33, he incorrectly gives the shelf number of Brussels, Bibl. Royale Albert Ier, MS 11201-02 as 11202-03; and Calkins's figures 93 and 94 incorrectly title MS Brussels 11201-02 as the Ethics rather than the Politics .

24. See Derek A. Pearsall and Elizabeth Salter, Landscapes and Seasons of the Medieval World (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1973), 119-60. For a recent discussion of these genres with bibliography, see Alexander, " Labeur and Paresse ," 437-38.

25. Manuscript Painting at the Court of France , 24-25. For the Laborer and His Plow illustration from the Miracles de Notre Dame (Paris, Bibl. Nat., MS nouv. acq. fr. 24541), see ibid., pl. 13 B.

26. See ibid., notices for pls. 29 and 30, 96 and 98. Avril calls the Jean de Sy Master by the more traditional appellation, the Maître de Boqueteaux.

27. See ibid., note on pl. 31, 101.

24. See Derek A. Pearsall and Elizabeth Salter, Landscapes and Seasons of the Medieval World (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1973), 119-60. For a recent discussion of these genres with bibliography, see Alexander, " Labeur and Paresse ," 437-38.

25. Manuscript Painting at the Court of France , 24-25. For the Laborer and His Plow illustration from the Miracles de Notre Dame (Paris, Bibl. Nat., MS nouv. acq. fr. 24541), see ibid., pl. 13 B.

26. See ibid., notices for pls. 29 and 30, 96 and 98. Avril calls the Jean de Sy Master by the more traditional appellation, the Maître de Boqueteaux.

27. See ibid., note on pl. 31, 101.

24. See Derek A. Pearsall and Elizabeth Salter, Landscapes and Seasons of the Medieval World (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1973), 119-60. For a recent discussion of these genres with bibliography, see Alexander, " Labeur and Paresse ," 437-38.

25. Manuscript Painting at the Court of France , 24-25. For the Laborer and His Plow illustration from the Miracles de Notre Dame (Paris, Bibl. Nat., MS nouv. acq. fr. 24541), see ibid., pl. 13 B.

26. See ibid., notices for pls. 29 and 30, 96 and 98. Avril calls the Jean de Sy Master by the more traditional appellation, the Maître de Boqueteaux.

27. See ibid., note on pl. 31, 101.

24. See Derek A. Pearsall and Elizabeth Salter, Landscapes and Seasons of the Medieval World (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1973), 119-60. For a recent discussion of these genres with bibliography, see Alexander, " Labeur and Paresse ," 437-38.

25. Manuscript Painting at the Court of France , 24-25. For the Laborer and His Plow illustration from the Miracles de Notre Dame (Paris, Bibl. Nat., MS nouv. acq. fr. 24541), see ibid., pl. 13 B.

26. See ibid., notices for pls. 29 and 30, 96 and 98. Avril calls the Jean de Sy Master by the more traditional appellation, the Maître de Boqueteaux.

27. See ibid., note on pl. 31, 101.

28. See above, nn. 4 and 23.

29. Menut assumes that Oresme was the son of a peasant ( Politiques , 13). Recent scholarship on Oresme's family and career finds no document on his life before 1348. See François Neveux, "Le clergé normand du XIVe siècle," in Autour de Nicole Oresme: Actes du Colloque Oresme organisé à l'Université de Paris XII , ed. Jeannine Quillet (Paris: J. Vrin, 1990), 10.

30. Politiques , 305.

31. Ibid., 262.

30. Politiques , 305.

31. Ibid., 262.