1. Levy, "O papel da migraão internacional," 49-90; "Les juifs dans l'histoire du Brésil," Rapport d'activitß pendant la période 1933-43 , HIAS-Brazil, folder 1, YIVO-NY; Linfield, "Statistics of the Jews," 301.

2. On South African Jewry, see Stephen Cohen, "Historical Background," in South African Jewry: A Contemporary Survey , ed. Marcus Arkin (Capetown: Oxford University Press, 1984), 1-22.

3. "Summary of Jewish Immigration to Canada, 1901-1939," in AJYB-5701 (1940), 42:624, table 25.

4. Lucien Wolf, "Report to the Directors of the Jewish Colonization Association (London, 2 September 1923)," SCA (15 December 1923), 3:181, JCA-L; Haim Avni, "Argentine Jewry: Its Socio-Political Status and Organizational Patterns," Dispersion and Unity , vol. 12 (1971).

5. Isaiah Raffalovich, "The Condition of Jewry and Judaism in South America," in Central Conference of American Rabbis Yearbook (New York, Central Conference of American Rabbis, 1930), 11:5-6.

6. Marcos Pereira (Rio de Janeiro) to ICA (Paris), 23 June 1921, SCA (21 September 1921), 4:161, JCA-L.

7. Decree law 4,247 (6 January 1921); Brazil, Ministério da Justia e Negó-cios Interiores, Estrangeiros: Legislação, 1808-1939 (Rio de Janeiro: Serviço de Documentação, 1950), 1:152-53 (hereafter Estrangeiros ).

8. Arnold Rushton (Liverpool Town Hall) to Isaiah Raffalovich (on board the S.S. Araguaya ), 10 December 1923, SCA (8 March 1924), 3:239, JCA-L.

9. Raffalovich (Rio de Janeiro) to ICA (Paris), 11 July 1924, SCA (11 October 1924), 4:1, JCA-L.

10. Raffalovich (on board the S.S. Araguaya ) to ICA (Paris), 18 December 1923, SCA (8 March 1924), 3:237, JCA-L.

11. Raffalovich to ICA, 18 December 1923, SCA, 3:241.

12. Members of the Haas family were involved in industry and exporting throughout Brazil. See Egon and Frieda Wolff, Dicionário biográfico , vol. 2, Judeus no Brasil: Século XIX (Rio de Janeiro: Egon and Frieda Wolff, 1987), 157-62.

13. Raffalovich to ICA, 11 July 1924, SCA, 4:1.

14. "Annual Report, 1924," SCA (17 October 1925), 2:45, JCA-L.

15. Decree law 16,761 (31 December 1924), art. 4.

16. Decree law 16,761 (31 December 1924).

17. Decree law 16,761 (31 December 1924), art. 7.

18. "Notes sur les questions inscrites à l'ordre du jour," SCA (13 May 1922), 1:25-26, JCA-L.

19. Raffalovich to ICA, 11 July 1924, SCA, 4:3.

20. Raffalovich to ICA, 11 July 1924, SCA, 4:4.

21. Raffalovich to ICA, 11 July 1924, SCA, 4:4.

22. Raffalovich to ICA, 11 July 1924, SCA, 4:4.

23. Isaiah Raffalovich, "Report for the Year 1926," SCA (2 July 1927), 1:130, JCA-L; Stanley Hilton, Brazil and the Soviet Challenge, 1917-1947 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1991), 16.

24. Lestschinsky, "Migrations of the Jews"; SCA 1927-1931, JCA-L.

25. Pereira to ICA, 23 June 1921, SCA,4:162.

26. Pereira to ICA, 23 June 1921, SCA,4:162.

27. United Evacuation Committee Report of 18 October 1925, annex 5, SCA (8 January 1927), 3:121, JCA-L.

28. Lucien Wolf, "Report to the Directors of the Jewish Colonization Association [London]," 2 September 1923, SCA (15 December 1923) 3:162, JCA-L.

29. Isaiah Raffalovich, Brazilye: A tsukunftsland far idisher emigratsye (Brazil: The land of the future for the Jewish Emigrant) (Berlin: HIAS-ICA-EMIGDIRECT, 1928).

30. Thomas W. Merrick and Douglas H. Graham, Population and Economic Development in Brazil, 1800 to present (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins Press, 1979), 38.

31. Warren Dean, "Economy," in Brazil: Empire and Republic, 1822-1930 , ed. Leslie Bethell (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 237.

32. June E. Hahner, Poverty and Politics: The Urban Poor in Brazil, 1870-1920 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1986), 261.

33. By 1940 more than 80 percent of all Brazil's Jews lived in São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, or Porto Alegre, where they concentrated in the districts of Bom Retiro, Praa Onze, and Born Fim, and were engaged in urban trades that ranged from peddling to small industry. See Leon Back, "Imigração judaica no Rio Grande do Sul," in Enciclopédia Rio-Grandense (Canoas, 1958), 5:271-82. See also Luiza H. Schmitz Kliemann, História da questão agrària (Porto Alegre: Mercado Aberto, 1986); and Judith L. Elkin, Jews of the Latin American Republics (Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press, 1980).

34. Oliveira Vianna's comments to the Chamber of Deputies, 27 December 1923. Cited in Fidelis Reis and João de Faria, O problema immigratorio e seus aspectos ethnicos: Na camara e fóra de câmara (Rio de Janeiro: Typ. "Revista dos Tribunaes," 1924), 57.

35. Wilson Martins, História da inteligência brasileira , vol. 6, 1915-1933 (São Paulo: Cultrix, 1978), 323-24.

36. Raffalovich to ICA, 11 July 1924, SCA, 4:94; Nelson Werneck Sodré in História da imprensa no Brasil (Rio de Janeiro: Editora Civilizaão Brasileira, 1966). Unfortunately neither Brazil's National Archives nor National Library has an extant copy of this issue of O Brasil .

37. Fundaão Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística-IBGE, Estatísticas Históricas do Brasil: Séries Econômicas, Demográficas e Sociais de 1550 a 1985 (Rio de Janeiro: IBGE, 1986), 32, table 1.7; Lestschinsky, "Jewish Migrations, 1840-1956"; "O projeto Fidelis Reis" (October 22, 1923) in Reis and Faria, O Problema immigratorio , 12; John D. Wirth, Minas Gerais in the Brazilian Federation, 1889-1937 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1977), 87-88.

38. Carlos S. Bakota, "Crisis and the Middle Classes: The Ascendency of Brazilian Nationalism, 1914-1922" (Ph.D. diss., University of California at Los Angeles, 1973), 144-45.

39. This is similar to a pattern found throughout South America. See, for example, Carl Solberg's discussion in Immigration and Nationalism: Argentina and Chile, 1890-1914 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1970).

40. Jacob Lestschinsky, "The Industrial and Social Structure of the Jewish Population of Interbellum Poland," YIVO Annual of Jewish Social Science 11 (1957), 246, table 1.

41. Raffalovich (Rio de Janeiro) to ICA (Paris), 27 March 1926, SCA (3 July 1926), 2:103, JCA-L.

42. Register of Sociedade Israelita de Beneficência e Proteão ao Imigrantes "EZRA" (São Paulo), "Jewish Immigrants Entering Port of Santos, 1928-1932," AHJB-SP.

43. Pereira (on board the S.S. Flandria ) to ICA (Paris), 3 August 1923, SCA (6 October 1923), 4:229, JCA-L.

44. Jose Carlos G. Durand, "Formaão do pequeno empresariado têxtil em São Paulo (1880-1950)," in Pequena empresa: O comportamento empresarial na acumulação e na luta pela sobrevivência , ed. Henrique Rattner (São Paulo: Brasiliense, 1985), 1:112.

45. On the earliest peddlers in Brazil, see José Alipio Goulart, O mascate no Brasil (Rio de Janeiro: Editora Conquista, Coleão Terra dos Papagaios, 1967), especially pp. 165-89.

46. On Syrian and Lebanese peddlers in Brazil, see Claude Fahd Hajjar, Imigraão árabe: 100 anos de reflexão (São Paulo: Editora Cone, 1985); Clark Knowlton, Sírios e libaneses (São Paulo: Editora Anhembi, 1960); Jorge S. Safady, "A imigração árabe no Brasil" (Ph.D. diss., Department of History, University of São Paulo, 1972); Manoelito de Ornellas, Gaúchos e beduínos: A origem étnica e a formação do Rio Grande do Sul (Rio de Janeiro: Editora José Olympio, 1948); and Jamil Safady, O café e o mascate (São Paulo: Editora Comercial Safady, 1973).

47. Fahd Hajjar, Imigraão árabe , 89. On the similar images of Arab and Jewish immigrants held by members of the Brazilian elite, see Jeffrey Lesser, "From Pedlars to Proprietors: Lebanese, Syrian and Jewish Immigrants in Brazil," in The Lebanese in the World: A Century of Emigration , ed. Albert Hourani and Nadim Shehadi (London and New York: I. B. Tauris and St. Martin's Press, 1992), 393-410.

48. Pierre Deffontaines, "Mascates," Geografia 2:1 (1936), 28.

49. Evaristo de Moraes, " Judeus sem dinheiro taes como eu vejo," in Os judeus na história do Brasil , ed. Afrânio Peixoto (Rio de Janeiro: Uri Zwerling, 1936), 105.

50. Guilherme de Almeida, "Cosmópolis: O 'Ghetto,"' O Estado de São Paulo , 31 March 1929; de Moraes, " Judeus sem Dinheiro ," 106.

51. Data from "Estatística Industrial" da Secretaria da Agricultura, published in Oscar Egídio de Araújo, "Enquistamentos étnicos," Revista do Arquivo Municipal de São Paulo 6:65 (March 1940): 241.

52. Idische Folkszeitung (Jewish Gazette) (Rio de Janeiro), 1 August 1941.

53. Isaiah Raffalovich, "Report of Tour in North of Brazil," SCA (5 September 1931), 2:87, JCA-L; RACCA 1923, p. 300, AHJB-SP; Pereira (São Paulo) to ICA (Paris), 20 July 1923, SCA (6 October 1923), 4:214, JCA-L.

54. Saúl Givelder, interview by Avram Milgram and Janette Engellaum, Rio de Janeiro, 31 November 1985, interview no. 13, American Jewish Archives, Cincinnati.

55. Givelder, interview, AJA-C.

56. "Minutes of an Interview with Mr. Jacob Schneider, President of the Zionist Organization in Brazil, London, 2nd November 1924," ZU/2350, p. 1, Central Zionist Archives, Jerusalem.

57. Raffalovich to ICA, 11 July 1924, SCA, 4:94.

58. Almeida's use of the term ghetto should not be confused with the more recent use of the word to signify any area that has a high concentration of one or more minority groups. See Peter I. Rose, "Ghetto," in Academic American Encyclopedia (Darien, Conn.: Grolier, 1986), 9:167.

59. Almeida, "Cosmópolis: O 'Ghetto.'" The entire collection of articles was republished as Cosmópolis: São Paulo/29 (São Paulo: Companhia Editora Nacional, 1962).

60. Paul Appleton, La traite des blanches (Paris: Librairie Nouvelle de Droit et de Jurisprudence, 1903), 34.

61. International Emigration Commission, Report of the Commission, August 1921 (Geneva: International Labour Office, 1921), 107.

62. League of Nations, Report of the Special Body of Experts on Traffic in Women and Children (Geneva: League of Nations, 1927); Louis Layrac, La traite des blanches et l'excitation à la débauche (Paris: V. Girard et F. Briere, 1904); George Rylel Scott, A History of Prostitution from Antiquity to the Present Day (London: T. Werner Laurie, 1936).

63. Guido Fonseca, História da prostituião em São Paulo . (São Paulo: Editora Resenha Universitária, 1982), 140.

64. Fonseca, História da prostituião , 141.

65. Needel, A Tropical Belle Epoque , 172.

66. J. R. Pires de Almeida, Hygiene moral (Rio de Janeiro: Laemmert, 1906); Needel, A Tropical Belle Epoque , 172.

67. Francisco Ferreira da Rosa, O lupanar: Estudo sobre o caftanismo e a prostituião no Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro: n.p., 1896), 8.

68. Ferreira da Rosa, O lupanar , 45-46. Emphasis in original.

69. Ferreira da Rosa, O lupanar , 13-16.

70. Fonseca, História da prostituião , 140-44; Margareth Rago, Os praz-eres da noite: Prostituição e códigos da sexualidade feminina em São Paulo (1890-1930 ) (Rio de Janeiro: Paz e Terra, 1991), 285-309.

71. Edward J. Bristow, Prostitution and Prejudice: The Jewish Fight against the White Slave Trade (New York: Schocken Books, 1974), 13; Needel, A Tropical Belle Epoque , 172; Samuel Malamud, Recordando a Praa Onze (Rio de Janeiro: Editora Kosmos, 1988), 81; Konrad Wrzos, Yerba Mate (Warsaw: Rój, 1937), 47.

72. Sander Gilman, The Jew's Body (New York: Routledge, Chapman and Hall, 1991), 122.

73. Gilberto Freyre, Ordem e progresso (Rio de Janeiro: José Olympio Editora, 1959), 2:95-96.

74. Freyre, Ordem e progresso , 2:95; Ferreira da Rosa, O lupanar , 46.

75. ''O mysterio da Rua dos Arcos: Frida Mystal, a estrangulada," Vida Policial vol. 1, no. 1 (14 March 1925). While Vida Policial often focused on the "Jewish race" of prostitutes, it was more attuned, as Sueann Caulfield has shown, toward portraying all "modern women" in a poor light; see "Getting into Trouble: Dishonest Women, Modern Girls and Women-Men in the Conceptual Language of Vida Policial , 1925-1927," Signs 19:1 (fall 1993).

76. There is some debate as to what "Zwi Migdal" means. One explanations is that the crime ring was founded by a man named Zwi, who named the groups Zwi's Tower (Hebrew: migdal), an appropriately phallic reference. Another explanation is that the founders of the group were two brothers named Migdal and thus zwei (Yiddish: two) Migdal.

77. Robert Weisbrot, The Jews of Argentina: From the Inquisition to Perón (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1979), 60. Weisbrot arrives at this figure by counting "Jewish" last names, a far from perfect method for discovering who is Jewish and who is not. See also Victor A. Mirelman, Jewish Buenos Aires, 1890-1930: In Search of an Identity (Detroit, Mich.: Wayne State University Press, 1990), 197-220.

78. Bristow, Prostitution and Prejudice , 141.

79. On the Zwi Migdal in Rio, see Samuel Malamud, "T'meim: Os judeus impuros," in Shalom 13:260 (May 1988), 29-30.

80. Rago, Os prazeres da noite , 301-2. Moacyr Scliar's novel O ciclo das águas (Porto Alegre: Editora Globo, 1977) deals extensively with the theme of the Jewish white slave trade in Brazil.

81. Livro de Atas de "Sociedade Religiosa e Beneficente Israelita," São Paulo , meetings of 30 June 1924, p. 1, and 22 June 1925, p. 6, Archives of the Lar dos Velhos, São Paulo. The reports of meetings in this book are often incomplete. It is unclear if all the funds for the organization came from membership dues, or if the pimps themselves contributed.

82. Abe Shulman, "Unclean Burial Place in Brazil," Jewish Week 8 (June 1980).

83. SRBI , meeting of 18 December 1924, p. 3, ALV-SP.

84. SRBI , meeting of 15 April 1927, p. 16, ALV-SP.

85. In 1927 a battle for power took place that began with a police raid following a telephone tip that members were "drunk and had among them unaccompanied minors." See SRBI, meeting of 4 May 1928, p. 33, ALV-SP.

86. RACCA 1925, p. 296, AHJB-SP.

87. Bristow, Prostitution and Prejudice , 113, n. 8.

88. Malamud, Recordando a Praa Onze , 82.

89. Rachel Geiger, interview by Janette Engellaum, Rio de Janeiro, September 1985, AJA-C.

90. "Annual Report, 1930," SCA (27 September 1930), 2:115, JCA-L.

91. Donna J. Guy, "White Slavery, Public Health, and the Socialist Position on Legalized Prostitution in Argentina, 1913-1936," Latin American Research Review 23:3 (1988), 74.

92. Jewish Colonization Association, Bureau de Rio de Janeiro Affilié à la HIAS-JCA-EMIGDIRECT, "Report for the year 1932," SCA (16 March 1933), 252, JCA-L.

93. Raffalovich, "Report for the Year 1926," SCA (2 July 1927), 1:134, JCA-L.

94. Raffalovich, "Report for the Year 1926," SCA, 1:134.

95. Raffalovich, "Report for the Year 1926," SCA, 1:137-8.

96. Guy, "White Slavery, Public Health," 74; Bristow, Prostitution and Prejudice , 319.

97. SRBI, meeting of 11 November, 1939, p. 84, ALV-SP.

98. SRBI, meeting of 14 June 1956, p. 111, ALV-SP.

99. SRBI, meeting of 31 July 1968, p. 192, ALV-SP.

100. See Gilman, The Jew's Body , 120-27.

101. Cezar Magalhaens, Pela brazilidade: Discursos e Conferências (Rio de Janeiro: Typ. A. Pernambucana Hermes Poffes, 1925), 42.

102. Fonseca, História da prostituião , 209-26; Bristow, Prostitution and Prejudice , 111-45.

103. Adolfo Coelho, Ópio, cocaína e escravatura branca (Lisbon: Livraria Clássica Editora, 1931), 244.

104. Anésio Frota Aguiar, O lenocínio como problema social no Brasil (Rio de Janeiro: n.p., 1940), 21.

105. Aguiar, O lenocínio , 17-20.

106. Aguiar, O lenocínio , 15.

107. This phenomenon has continued to this day. Guido Fonseca's contemporary historical study of prostitution in São Paulo, for example, demonstrates that the majority of prostitutes in São Paulo were Brazilian and that, of the non-Brazilians, the majority were not Eastern European. He gives no indication that all, or even a significant percentage, of Eastern European prostitutes were Jewish. Yet his discussion is illustrated with a distraught letter written in 1931 to a São Paulo police delegation in which a mother complained that "my daughter, against my wishes, married a Polish Jew" who then took her to Buenos Aires for illicit purposes. See Fonseca, História da prostituião , 144.

108. Moraes, " Judeus sem dinheiro ," 107.

109. Raffalovich, "Report for the Year 1926," SCA, 1:128.

110. Esther Regina Largman and Robert M. Levine, "Jews in the Tropics: Bahian Jews in the Early Twentieth Century." Americas 18 (October 1986), 161.

111. Pereira to ICA, 3 August 1923, SCA, 4:227.

112. Pereira to ICA, 3 August 1923, SCA, 4:227.

113. On Jewish education, see Falbel, Estudos , 118-30; and Rattner, Tradião e mudança , especially pp. 61-69.

114. RACCA 1930, p. 61, AHJB-SP.

115. Raffalovich to ICA, 27 March 1926, no. 44, SCA 2:100.

116. On the Jewish press in Brazil, see Isaac Z. Raizman, A fertl yorhundert yiddishe prese in Brazil (A quarter century of Jewish press in Brazil) (Tzfat: Museum le-Omanut ha-Dfus, 1968); Sergio Robert Margulies, "História da imprensa judaica no Brasil," in Small Collection, American Jewish Archives, Cincinnatti; and Falbel, Estudos , 155-60.

117. Pereira (on board the Flandria ) to ICA (Paris), 3 August 1923, SCA (6 October 1923) 4:222, JCA-L.

118. Nachman Falbel, "Early Zionism in Brazil: The Founding Years, 1913-1922," American Jewish Archives 38:2 (1986), 128.

119. A fine survey of Brazilian Zionism by one of its leaders can be found in Malamud, Do arquivo e da memória , 21-110.

120. Dos Idische Vochenblatt (The Jewish Weekly) (Rio de Janeiro), 23 November 1923, 1. Microfilm in newspaper holdings of the Hebrew Union College/Jewish Institute of Religion Library, Cincinnati, Ohio.

121. Dos Idische Vochenblatt , 22 February 1924, 9, HUC/JIR-C.

122. Eliezer Levy to Chaim Weizmann, 20 November 1919, ZU/2350, CZA-J.

123. Falbel, Estudos , 134-39.

124. Pereira (on board the Flandria ) to ICA (Paris), 3 August 1923, SCA (6 October 1923) 4:222, JCA-L.

125. Dos Idische Vochenblatt , 14 and 21 August 1925, 1, HUC/JIR-C.

126. Raffalovich, "Report for the Year 1926," SCA, 1:138.

127. Raffalovich, "Report for the Year 1926," SCA, 1:131, JCA-L.

128. Raffalovich, "Report for the Year 1926," SCA, 1:132, JCA-L.

129. "Annual Report, 1927," SCA (15 October 1928), 1:271, JCA-L.

130. Raffalovich, Brazilye , 1.

131. Raffalovich (Rio) to ICA (Paris), 30 April 1929, no. 110, SCA (6 July 1929) 1:188, JCA-L; "Rapport sur l'activité de la HIAS-JCA-EMIGDIRECT, 1 avril 1927 à 31 décembre 1928," SCA (6 July 1929) 2:118, JCA-L; Falbel, Estudos , 129.

132. Raffalovich, "Report for the Year 1926," SCA, 1:136.

133. "L'Activite de la HIAS-JCA-EMIGDIRECT," SCA, 2:117.

134. "Annual Report, 1927," SCA, 1:273.

135. "Report of the United Evacuation Committee (Paris) 4 July 1926," SCA (9 October 1926), 3:235, JCA-L.

136. "Annual Report, 1930," SCA (27 September 1930), 2:104, JCA-L.

137. Rosaura Street (Servio de Colocação de Imigrantes Dirigidos) to Director of INIC, 2 May 1957, Processo 11.007, Fundo: Hospedaria dos Imigrantes, Secção: Documentação Administrativo, Archive of the Secretaria de Estado da Promoção Social-Centro Histórico do Imigrante, São Paulo.

138. Raffalovich to ICA, 30 April 1929, no. 110, SCA, 1:188.

139. Draft copy of Raffalovich speech to Central Conference of American Rabbis, SCA (27 September 1930), 2:63, JCA-L; Jewish Colonization Association, "Report for the Year 1932," SCA, 250.

140. Jewish Colonization Association, "Report for the Year 1932," SCA, 247.