1. Sun Yat-sen, Guofu quanji [The collected works of Sun Yat-sen] (Taibei: Zhonghua minguo gejie jinian guofu bainian danchen choubei weiyuanhui, 1965), 3: 374.

2. Hunan shanhou xiehui, 13.

3. Dagongbao , Apr. 29, 1919.

4. Unpublished correspondence cited in Xie Benshu, "Wu Peifu yu xinan junfa de goujie" [The collusion between Wu Peifu and the southwestern warlords], Guizhou shehui kexue [Guizhou Social Science], 1983, no. 5: 70.

5. For a discussion of the introduction of the term warlord into Chinese political discourse, see Arthur Waldron, "The Warlord: Twentieth-Century Chinese Understandings of Violence, Militarism, and Imperialism," American Historical Review 96, no. 4 (Oct. 1991): 1073-1100.

6. Arthur Waldron, "Warlordism versus Federalism: The Revival of a Debate?" China Quarterly 121 (Mar. 1990): 116-24.

7. Nathan, Peking Politics . See esp. chs. 1, 7, and 8.

8. Pye, Warlord Politics , 9.

9. Mao Tse-tung, 2: 273.

10. Ibid., 272.

9. Mao Tse-tung, 2: 273.

10. Ibid., 272.

11. Cheng Hsiao-shih, Party-Military Relations in the PRC and Taiwan: Paradoxes of Control (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1990).

12. Sheridan, Chinese Warlord , 14-16. break