1. See Theopolis Fair, "The Indiano during the Spanish Golden Age from 1550-1650" (Ph.D. diss., Temple University, 1972), 11, 75.

2. In sixteenth-century Cáceres and Trujillo the term "perulero" is used almost invariably for returnees, occurring not only in informal usage but in legal documents as well, often appended to an individual's name much as occupational designations were. I have seen only one instance of the use of the term "indiano," in testimony of 1549 in Trujillo; Juan de la Jara referred to people who had come from the Indies as "tales indianos," in AGI Justicia 1176, no. 2, ramo 8.

3. See Lockhart, Men of Cajamarca, 44-52, 63-64, and also his "Letters and People to Spain," in Chiapelli, First Images of America, 2: 790-791. Lockhart specifically discusses the returnees to Trujillo who had been at Cajamarca.

4. For their stories, see Altman, "Spanish Hidalgos," 335-343.

5. Pérez de Tudela, Documentos relativos a la Gasca, 1: 567 (letter from Pedro de Valdivia to Hernando Pizarro, September 1545).

6. Casco and the members of the entourage accompanying Gasca appear in the testimony for Pedro Jara and Alonso de Bibanco, AGI Justicia 1126, no. 4, ramo 1.

7. See Catálogo, 3, no. 2447; García testified he was thirty-nine in 1547 (AGI Indif. Gen. 2055), but the exact date of his return is not known.

8. For Ribera see Catálogo, 5, no. 2248, and testimony in AGI Indif. Gen. 2083, 2089. For Andrés Calderón, see Catálogo, 4, no. 2281, and AGI Justicia 1062, no. 2, ramo 1.

9. Catálogo, 4, nos. 483, 486, 1278; Acedo, "Linajes," Vargas, 48 ^a13-14 .

10. AGI Contratación 5218.

11. AGI Indif. Gen. 2094.

12. AGI Lima 199.

13. See Miguel Muñoz de San Pedro, Doña Isabel de Moctezuma, la novia de Extremadura (Madrid, 1965), 28, 31, 33, and AHPC Alonso Pacheco 4103.

14. For Francisco Sánchez de Melo, see Archivo Histórico de Arequipa Gaspar Hernández, 22 December 1551, 22 July 1553, and letter from Diego de Trujillo, Cuzco, January 1564 in AGI Indif. General 2084. For the Melo brothers, see Catálogo, 3, nos. 3557, 4183. For Pedro's return, see AGI Indif. General 2162A; and Acedo, "Linajes," Vargas, 48 ^a49 .

15. AGI Indif. Gen. 2162A.

16. AGI Indif. Gen. 2086.

17. Doña Gracia de Medina, the daughter of Diego Jiménez "perulero," married García de Vargas Carvajal, who was the brother of doña María de Carvajal, the wife of returnee Andrés Calderón Puertocarrero (Acedo, "Linajes," Carvajal, 110 ^a10 ).

18. ACC-HO leg. 4, no. 18; leg. 5, pt. 2, no. 20.

19. In 1603 don Pedro Cano Moctezuma y Toledo, the son of don Juan

Cano Moctezuma and his wife doña Elvira de Paredes Toledo, was a regidor in Toledo and sold 19,609 maravedís of rents for winter pasturage in dehesas in Cáceres's jurisdiction to his uncle Alonso Cano Saavedra, a vecino of Cáceres (ACC-HO leg. 4, no. 39).

20. Lodo de Maryoralgo, Viejos linajes, 122; Boyd-Bowman, Indice, 2, no. 2741; Lockhart, Men of Cajamarca, 213 (note); AHPC Diego Pacheco 4113.

21. See Lockhart, Spanish Peru, 20.

22. Godoy's will is in AHPC Diego Pacheco 4113; see also Roa y Ursua, El reyno de Chile, 8-9.

23. He purchased the regimiento from his nephew by marriage, Benito Moraga y Nidos, who was the husband of doña Marina de Carvajal, the daughter of doña Marta Martínez de Orellana (Godoy's sister) and Francisco de Carvajal. Their son Gaspar Moraga y Nidos emigrated to New Spain, probably in 1570.

24. See Lockhart's biography of Morgovejo in Men of Cajamarca, 230-232.

25. AHPC Diego Pacheco 4101 contains the accounting Godoy made in 1558 at the request of Francisco Morgovejo's grandmother and uncle of expenditures made for his ward.

26. AHPC Diego Pacheco 4100.

27. ACC-HO leg. 4, no. 47.

28. AHPC Diego Pacheco 4113, 4101.

29. AHPC Diego Pacheco 4113, Pedro González 3827.

30. AHPC Pedro González 3829.

31. Lodo de Mayoralgo, Viejos linajes, 122. Doña Leonor de Godoy, the daughter of Rodrigo de Godoy and doña Teresa Rol de la Cerda (hence the granddaughter of Francisco de Godoy) in 1558, at the age of fifteen, married another very successful and wealthy returnee, Cristóbal de Ovando Paredes (ACC-HO leg. 7, no. 17).

32. See Lockhart's biography in Men of Cajamarca, 343-345; Tena Fernández, Trujillo histórico, 227; AGS Exped. Hacienda 311.

33. Lockhart, Men of Cajamarca, 288-289; AGI Indif. General 2078; AMT García de Sanabria A-1-1, A-1-2.

34. AMT Pedro de Carmona B-1-27.

35. AGI Justicia 1053, no. 5, Lima 565; AMT García de Sanabria A-1-1, A-1-2. Diego de Carvajal bought the censo from the merchants Juan de Camargo and Juan González de Victoria, who had connections with the Pizarros and with the Indies.

36. AGS Exped. Hacienda 189-56.

37. See ARCG Hidalguía 301-55-21, and the discussion of the suit for

hidalguía in chap. 2. Hernando de Sande's will is in AHPC Pedro González 3830. See also Altman, "Emigrants and Society."

38. Miguel Muñoz de San Pedro, "Aventuras y desventuras del tercer Diego García de Paredes," Revista de Estudios Extremeños 13 (1957): 17-32.

39. See AGI Justicia 1126, no. 4, ramo 1.

40. AGI Justicia 1067, no. 5, ramo 2. In 1565 the priest Francisco de Rodas had a benefice in Santa María (AMT Pedro de Carmona A-1-1-9).

41. Catálogo , 3, no. 3199; AGI Indif. General 2085 (información of Francisco Cervantes).

42. AGI Indif. Gen. 2055 (return to Spain in 1574), AGI Contratación 5222 (return to New Spain). See AGI Justicia 215, no. 1, for his activities in New Spain.

43. AGI Patronato 117, ramo 7, and 100, and Justicia 430. See also Altman, "Spanish Hidalgos," 331-332.

44. AGI Justicia 1061, no. 1, ramo 1.

45. For Aldana see Raul Porras Barrenechea, ed., Cedulario del Peru (Lima, 1944-1948), 2: 127; for Nidos see Porras Barrenechea, Cedulario , 2: 217, and Roa y Ursua, El reyno de Chile , 9, 210.

46. AGI Indif. Gen. 2093 and ARCG 3 ^a -599-3.

47. AGI Contratación 5220, 5224, and Lodo de Mayoralgo, Viejos linajes , 48.

48. See Catálogo , 5, nos. 3507, 3843; AGI Indif. Gen. 2054, 2056; AGI Contratación 5222.

49. Catálogo , 3, no. 2977; AGI Indif. General 2093.

50. AGI Indif. Gen. 2090.

51. AGI Contratación 5227; the criado was Alonso Donaire (see also Navarro del Castillo, La epopeya , 394, 416).

52. Schäfer, El consejo de Indias , 2: 151, 482, 487, 492, 516. Blas Altamirano probably had been in Peru in the 1570s with his parents.

53. Catálogo , 5, nos. 1381, 1451; AGI Indif. General 2083.

54. All the documents relating to the transactions between Benito de la Peña and Pedro de Vita, as well as Vita's power of attorney made in Cáceres in October 1546, are in AHPC Diego Pacheco 4100. Peña was one of that large group of young men who left Cáceres in 1535, ostensibly for Santo Domingo, although most of them ended up in Peru (Boyd-Bowman, Indice , 2, no. 2776).

55. AGI Indif. Gen. 2085, 2087.

56. AHPC Pedro de Grajos 3925; Gómez de Solís paid the money the following year.

57. AHPC Pedro González 3830.

58. AGI Justicia 1126, no. 4, ramo 1.

59. Lockhart, Men of Cajamarca , 220-221, 295; AGI Justicia 1053, no. 5 (for the suit). Juan Cortés had fought in Navarre with Hernando Pizarro (see Justicia 1176, no. 2, ramo 1). Also see Justicia 1176, no. 2, ramo 8, for testimony about the enmity between Cortés and Herrera.

60. AGI Justicia 1176, no. 2, ramo 8. The account of this episode comes mainly from testimony of 1549 taken from Juan de Herrera, who clearly was embittered and seeking any opportunity to get even with Cortés (by this time the incident in which Cortés's criados had wounded Herrera's brother also had occurred), so Herrera might have been a less than wholly credible witness. Nevertheless, although no other witness recounted the incident in such detail, neither did anyone else contradict Herrera's version, and the details sound authentic.

61. ACC-HO leg. 5, pt. 2, no. 20.

62. AMT Pedro de Carmona B-1-23. The regidores were Hernando de Orellana, Juan Casco, Gonzalo Rodríguez de Ocampo, and Melchior González, the last two very likely returnees.

63. AMT Pedro de Carmona B-1-27. Navarro del Castillo, La epopeya , 413. Captain Gonzalo de Olmos's brother Juan de Olmos also was in Peru, at least through the 1540s.

64. AGI Indif. Gen. 2090 (informaciones of Cristóbal de Ribera and Juan de Tapia).

65. ARCG 3 ^a -599-3; Boyd-Bowman, Indice , 2, no. 3173; Acedo, "Linajes," Loaysa, 222 ^a3-15 . Don Gaspar de Ayala was thirty in 1596 when he returned from Peru; his brothers don Jerónimo de Loaysa and don Lorenzo de Loaysa Figueroa were thirty-four and twenty-five. They all could have been born in Trujillo in the 1560s, since their mother might have been fairly young when she came to Trujillo. She married a second time in Trujillo, to Diego García Barrantes, son of returnee Pedro Barrantes, and died in 1581 (AMT Pedro de Carmona B-1-23).

66. Icaza, Conquistadores , 1: 31; Muñoz de San Pedro, Doña Isabel , 28, 31, 33; Gibson, Aztecs , 92, 424-426.

67. AHPC Pedro González 3829, ACC-HO leg. 4, no. 39.