1. Jean Fournel, Avec ceux d'Argelliers. Une acte d'énergie méridionale (Montpellier: Editions languedociennes, 1908), 19; Félix Napo, 1907. La révolte des vignerons (Toulouse: Edouard Privat, 1971), 36-41.

2. J. Harvey Smith, "La Crise d'une économie régionale: La monoculture viticole et la révolte du Midi (1907)," Les Annales du Midi 92 (1980): 319.

3. The literature on 1907 includes Maurice LeBlond, La crice du Midi (Paris: Bibliothèque Charpentier, 1907); Guy Bechtel, 1907. La grande révolte du Midi (Paris: Laffont, 1976); Smith, "Agricultural Workers"; Sagnes, "Mouvement de 1907"; André Marty, A la gloire des lutteurs de 1907 (Paris: Editions Norman Béthune, 1972); and numerous dossiers in Series M of AD Aude, especially 5M66-67, and in Series F ⁷ of AN.

4. AD Aude 5M67, "Crise viticole et événements de 1907," Article in Le Petit Méridional , July 7, 1905; Report of subprefect to prefect, Nov. 7, 1905; 5M66, "Crise viticole et événements de 1907," Reports of prefect to minister of the interior, Oct. 9, 1906, and Apr. 26, 1907; Report of subprefect to prefect, May 2, 1907; and Le Tocsin , no. 3 (May 5, 1907), on hostility to tax collectors.

5. AD Aude 15M132, "Grèves agricoles. Dossiers des grèves des communes rurales de l'arrondissement de Narbonne . . . 1906-1908," Diverse reports on strikes in Salles, Fleury, Marcorignan, etc.; 5M10, Monthly prefect reports, Report of subprefect to prefect, Feb. 1, 1907; AN F ⁷ 12794, "Troubles causés par les événements de 1907," Prefect reports of May 6 and 17, 1907.

6. Napo, 1907 , 207-227.

7. César Boyer and J. Payret, Aux pays de gueux. Les grands meetings du Midi (Paris: N.p., 1907), 35; Félix Napo, 1907. La révolte des vignerons , 2d ed. (Toulouse: Edouard Privat, 1982), 71.

8. See, for example, the account in Jules Maffre, "Les événements de 1907 dans l'Aude et la région méridionale," in Carcassonne et sa région. Actes du congrès d'études regionales tenus à Carcassonne en mai 1968 (Carcassonne: Gabelle, 1970), 337.

9. See Napo, 1907 (1st ed.), 70, 74; Rinaudo, Vendanges , 48-49; and photographs of women in the 1907 mass meetings in R. Pech, Entreprise viticole , and in Jacques Durand and André Hampartzoumian, Le Languedoc au temps des diligences (Montpellier: Images d'oc, 1978). On the issues of health and additives, see Jacques Duhr, "Comment on fraude et nous empoisonne," Le Journal , June 24, 1907, who presents a ghastly list of chemical additives; "Du vin naturel," Le Tocsin , no. 2 (April 28, 1907); and various articles in AD Aude 5M66.

10. Smith shows that large landowners unsuccessfully tried to steer the movement in a direction compatible with their own entrepreneurial strategies; see "Crise d'une économie régionale," 326-332. On the participation of large proprietors in the Aude, see AD Aude 5M66, Report of subprefect to prefect, Apr. 26, 1907; AN F ⁷ 12794, Report of subprefect to prefect, Apr. 26, 1907; Report of prefect to minister of the interior, undated but almost certainly June 12, 1907; Fournel, Avec ceux d'Argelliers , 29-30; Louis Blanc, Souvenirs de 1907. Légende pour les Jacques (Olonzac, Hérault: Confédération générale des vignerons du Midi, 1948), 14; Sagnes, "Mouvement de 1907," 13-14.

11. AD Aude 5M67, Report from prefect to minister of the interior, May 30, 1907; Articles from Le Petit Méridional , July 13, 1907, and Le Courrier de l'Aude , July 15, 1907; 5M68, Telegram from prefect to the minister of the interior, June 15, 1907.

12. Sagnes, "Mouvement de 1907," 16; Verdejo, "Mutation de la vie rurale," 218; Ader, "Le Midi bouge," Le Travailleur de la terre , no. 1 (June, 1907). Le Travailleur de la terre served as the official newspaper of the Union fédérative terrienne, which loosely united all the agricultural workers' federations then in existence, the Fédération nationale des bûcherons, the Fédération nationale horticole, the Fédération agricole de la région du Nord, and the FTAM. Paul Ader was editor.

13. Sagnes, "Mouvement de 1907," 16; "Les ouvriers agricoles de Bessan," Le Travailleur de la terre , no. 2 (July 1907).

14. Fédération des travailleurs agricoles du Midi, Compte rendu des travaux du 5 ^e Congrès de la Fédération des travailleurs agricoles et partis similaires du Midi (Béziers: Imprimerie ouvrière du Centre—ouvriers syndiqués et fédérés, 1907), 44-45; Smith, "Agricultural Workers," 114-115. In the Aude workers did not organize and influence the mass meetings to the extent that Smith suggests.

15. Le Tocsin no. 1 (Apr. 21, 1907). This paper was published by the Argelliers Viticultural Defense Committee. I am grateful to Deke Dusinberre and Jean-Paul Socard for their assistance in translating the manifesto.

16. Napo, 1907 (1st ed.), 63-69; see also Charles Tilly's rough classification of rural reactions to capitalism and state making in "Proletarianization and Rural Collective Action in East Anglia and Elsewhere, 1500-1900," Peasant Studies 10 (Fall 1982): 5-32.

17. AN F ⁷ 12794, Anonymous report of events of 1907; AN F ⁷ 12920; Napo, 1907 (1st ed.), 53-54; Sagnes, "Mouvement de 1907," 20; on resignations in the Aude, AD Aude 5M72-82. Figures differ on the number of municipalities that resigned. In AN F ⁷ 12794, a report from the prefect to the minister of the interior, Oct. 12, 1907, states that 246 municipalities resigned; Sagnes reports 231. Some villages remained on strike until October; others withdrew their resignations by the end of August. On the renewal of resignations, see "Les maires de l'arrondissement de Narbonne," Le Temps , July 7, 1907; and AN F ⁷ 12794, Le Petit Méridional , Aug. 9, 1907.

18. AD Aude 5M69, Commission d'enquête parlementaire et visite dans le département des délégués du Ministère du l'intérieur, Article from La Dépêche de Toulouse , June 19, 1907.

19. See Boyer and Peyret, Aux pays de gueux , 157-158; Bechtel, 1907 , 176-214; Napo 1907 (1st ed.), 78-80, 108-123; Marty, A la gloire des lutteurs , 27-28. On the events in Narbonne, see AN F ⁷ 12920, Emeutes provoquées dans le Midi par la crise viticole de 1907, Reports of prefect to minister of the interior, June 21 and 26, 1907; Report of subprefect to prefect, June 21, 1907; Reports of commissaire spécial to prefect, June 22 and 24, 1907; "Le redempteur [Albert] emprisonné" and "Les collisions à Narbonne," both in L'Eclair , June 27, 1907. See also accounts in Napo, 1907 , 108-123.

20. On the mutiny of the seventeenth, see Napo, 1907 , 127-132; and Marty, A la gloire des lutteurs , 31-35; AN F ⁷ 12920, Report from subprefect to prefect, June 21, 1907; Article in Le Journal , June 21, 1907.

21. Napo, 1907 , 177; Warner, Winegrowers , 40-41.

22. Smith, "Crise d'une économie régionale," 332.

23. For Ferroul's appeal, see Le Petit Méridional , Aug. 14, 1907.

24. According to the rules of the CGV, members received a number of votes proportional to the size of their vineyards. This meant that large owners would automatically carry the most weight, while landless vineyard workers (and even very small owners) would have virtually no voice in the organization. For CGV rules, see AD Aude 15M109, "Syndicats professionnels. Dossier général des unions des syndicats. Confédération générale des vignerons à Narbonne, 1907-1934."

25. Sagnes, "Mouvement de 1907," 14-15.

26. Napo, 1907 , 70.

27. See Rebérioux, "Jaurès et la nationalisation de la vigne," Bulletin de la Société des études jaurésiennes 17 (1965): 8. This was Jaurès's response to those who accused the SFIO of being unable to take control of the movement.

28. Citoyenne Sorgue (Antoinette Cauvin), member of the National Council of the SFIO, criticized the class collaborationism of the CGV. See AD Aude 15M94, Report of commissaire central to prefect on her address in Carcassonne, Mar. 24, 1908; 15M117, Report of police in Narbonne to subprefect, Mar. 23, 1908. Sorgue accused the CGV of yellow unionism and urged those workers who had joined to leave. On Sorgue, see Maitron, Dictionnaire biographique (pt. 3: 1871-1914 ), 15: 175; Charles Sowerwine, Sisters or Citizens: Women in the French Socialist Party (London: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 116-117, 222n27. See Parti socialiste (SFIO), 6 ^e Congrès national de la SFIO tenu à St-Etienne les 11, 12, 13, 14 avril 1909 (Paris: Au siège du Conseil national, 1909), 260; AD Aude 5M94, "Police générale," Article entitled "La CGV," in Le Midi socialiste , Apr. 16, 1909; Sagnes, Le Mouvement ouvrier , 114-117; Sagnes, Jean Jaurèes et le Languedoc viticole (Montpellier: Presses de Languedoc, 1988), 68-71.

29. On Jaurèes's program, see Rebérioux, "Jaurèes et nationalisation," 4; Napo, 1907 , 83-84; Sagnes, Jean Jaurèes , 63-64. On his approval of the CGV, see AD Aude 5M95, Articles in La Dépêche de Toulouse , Oct. 20 and 121, 1907, reporting on Jaurès's visit to Narbonne. Jaurès took a more noncommittal position on the CGV during the SFIO St-Etienne congress; see SFIO, 6 ^e Congrès, 261-262.

30. See FTAM, 5 ^e Congrès, 47-48; Smith, "Agricultural Workers," 113. I disagree with Smith about the similarity between the CGV and the CGT; the two organizations were utterly different in their membership, aims, and methods. Smith downplays the importance of the debate over the CGV that took place within the Socialist party and the labor movement.

31. FTAM, 5 ^e Congrès, 46. See also Paul Ader, "La jaunisse dans le Midi," Le Travailleur de la terre , nos. 4 (Sept. 1907), 9 (Feb. 1908), 21 (Feb. 1909), 23 (Apr. 1909), and 24 (May 1909). For Ader's sympathy with small proprietors, see FTAM, 5 ^e Congrès, 50.

32. Fédération des travailleurs agricoles du Midi, Compte rendu du 6 ^e 6 Congrès de la Fédération des travailleurs agricoles et partis similaires du Midi (Montpellier: Imprimerie coopérative ouvrière, 1909), 49-51.

33. Both Smith ("Agricultural Workers," 109) and Gratton ( Luttes de classes , 306) argue that rank-and-file workers reacted against syndicalist leaders' antiparliamentary rhetoric; as we have seen, syndicalists made no secret of these views during the years of peak unionization.

34. AD Aude 15M132, Grèves agricoles; Garidou, "Viticulture audoise," 123-124; FTAM, 6 ^e Congrès, 48.

35. See La Voix du peuple , no. 481 (Dec. 12, 1909); Le Travailleur de la terre , no. 21 (Dec. 1909).

36. See AD Aude 15M132, Placard, "Aux travailleurs agricoles"; Article by Paul Ader in Le Travailleur de la terre , no. 15 (Apr. 1908); AN F ⁷ 13626, Report of prefect to minister of the interior, Aug. 24, 1908. In Coursan, striking workers cut the bridles and harnesses of farm-hands' horses and, on one estate, set fire to haystacks; see AD Aude 15M133, "Grèves agricoles . . . 1909-1913," Police report, Apr. 20, 1909; AN BB ¹⁸ 2409 ² (856A09), "Violences à Coursan par les ouvriers agricoles ayant fête le l ^er mai"; F ⁷ 13626, Clipping from La Voix du peuple , July 11, 1909.

37. See Roland Andréani, "L'antimilitarisme en Languedoc avant 1914," Revue d'histoire moderne et contemporaine 20 (Jan.-Mar. 1973): 106; Roger Magraw, "Pierre Joigneaux and Socialist Propaganda in the French Countryside, 1849-1851," French Historical Studies 10 (1978): 623.

38. AN F ⁷ 12794, "Troubles causés par les événements de 1907-1908," Telegram from prefect to minister of the interior, Sept. 3, 1907; AD Aude 6M631, Anarchistes, Report from commissaire spécial to prefect, Nov. 19, 1907; Report of subprefect to prefect on antimilitarist group in Coursan, Oct. 2, 1907; 7M114, "Police administrative, police des spectacles," Placard dated Jan. 24, 1907, "Réglementation des cafés concerts," issued by prefect of the Aude; see also 6M360, "Documentation anarchiste," Report of prefect to minister of the interior on regulation of plays with antimilitarist themes in the Aude, Feb. 29, 1912.

39. FTAM, 6 ^e Congrèes, 40, 43-45.

40. See Julliard, "CGT Devant la Guerre," 47-62; AN F ⁷ 13338, "Agitation contre la Loi de trois ans," Report of commissaire de police to subprefect, Dec. 16, 1912.

41. See, for example, AD Aude 5M10, Report of prefect to minister of the interior, Jan. 9, 1909, on a meeting of vineyard workers in Coursan at the end of December 1908.

42. A. Travert, "Douce patrie," Le Travailleur de la terre , no. 9 (Feb. 1908).

43. Fédération des travailleurs agricoles du Midi, Compte rendu des travaux du 7 ^e Congrès de la Fédération des travailleurs agricoles et partis similaires de la région du Midi (Montpellier: Imprimerie coopérative ouvrière, 1909), 62. From about 1908 on, the Socialist press, including L'Humanité , opened its columns to syndicalists, in an effort to reach out to the labor movement.

44. Ibid., 21; Fédération des travailleurs agricoles du Midi, Compte rendu des travaux du 8 ^e Congrès de la Fédération des travailleurs agricoles et partis similaires de la region du Midi (Montpellier: Imprimerie coopérative ouvrière, 1910), 26-33.

45. AN F ⁷ 13599, "Bourse du Travail, Union départementale des syndicats," Newspaper articles: "L'Union départementale de l'Aude," La Voix du peuple , Mar. 13-20, 1910; "Union des syndicats de l'Aude," La Voix du peuple , Feb. 15-18, 1913; "Congrès de l'Union départementale," La Voix du peuple , June 14-21, 1914.

46. See "Propagande rurale," Le Travailleur de la terre , no. 31 (Dec. 1909); AD Aude 5M10, Report of prefect to minister of the interior, Jan. 7, 1909.

47. There was a less marked increase in the proportion of unsuccessful strikes in this period than that found nationally by Shorter and Tilly; see Strikes in France , 370. Our findings also differ somewhat from Smith's for lower Languedoc generally; see "Agricultural Workers," 123-125.

48. Our findings differ from those of Smith, who has argued that the unions became more accommodating and more adept at bargaining with employers after 1907, having learned the rules of the game; see "Agricultural Workers," 124-125. It is true that unions were more successful at winning annually renewable contracts after 1907 than earlier; however, as is shown above, unions in the Aude fought for and won contracts well before 1907.

49. Sagnes, "Les grèves dans l'Hérault de 1890 à 1938," in Economie et société en Languedoc-Roussillon de 1789 à nos jours (Montpellier: Centre d'histoire contemporaine de Languedoc-méditerranéen et du Roussillon, 1978), 268-269.

50. Shorter and Tilly ( Strikes in France , 76-103), Hanagan ( Logic of Solidarity , 72-80), and Perrot ( Ouvriers en grève 1:114-149 esp.) suggest, on the contrary, that workers struck when living standards were Improving.

51. See Shorter and Tilly, Strikes in France , 76.

52. Smith has found that this was true for Cruzy, Hérault, as well; see "Work Routine and Social Structure," 381.

53. See FTAM, 4 ^e Congrès, 34, 44-45; "Agitation syndicale, la propagande rurale," La Voix du peuple , no. 481 (Dec. 12, 1909); Paul Ader, "La vie chère," Le Travailleur de la terre , no. 40 (Sept. 1910); Léon Violes, "La pacte de famine," Le Travailleur de la terre , no. 41 (Oct. 1910); Comité confédéral, "Contre la vie chère," Le Travailleur de la terre , no. 41 (Oct. 1910); Jean-Marie Flonneau, ''La crise de la vie chère, 1910-1914,'' Le Mouvement social 72 (July-Sept. 1970): 58, and especially Flonneau's discussion of inflation, pp. 49-58.

54. FTAM, 8 ^e Congrès, 18-19.

55. AD Aude 15M117, Reports of commissaire central to prefect, Sept. 25, 1910; Oct. 9 and Nov. 5, 1911; and June 25, 1912; Reports of subprefect to prefect, Oct. 18, 1911, and June 23, 1912.

56. AD Aude 15M133, Questionnaires from Direction du travail, Feb. 28 and Sept. 8, 1911; Police report, Sept. 4, 1911; Le Petit Méridional , Sept. 4, 1911: France, Ministère de commerce, Statistique des grèves for 1911-1913.

57. FTAM, 7 ^e Congrès, 26; "Congrès régional de Coursan," Le Travailleur de la terre , no. 32 (Jan. 1910).

58. See France, Ministère de commerce, Statistique des grèves for 1911-1913; Guilbert, Femmes et l'organisation syndicale , 204.

59. This did not happen all over France, of course; see Sowerwine, "Workers and Women." On male workers' concept of class as essentially masculine, see Joan W. Scott, "Language, Gender, and Working-Class History," International Labor and Working-Class History 31 (Spring 1987): 9.

60. On the women's section of the union and the women's strike, see AD Aude 15M133, Questionnaire from Direction du travail, Telegram from subprefect to prefect, Nov. 28, 1912; Police reports to prefect, Nov. 12, 1912, and Jan. 21, 1913; Articles in La Dépêche de Toulouse , Jan. 13, 1913; 15M102, Etats des syndicats; AN F ⁷ 13626, Report of commissaire central to directeur de sûreté générale , Aug. 1912.

61. See Le Travailleur de la terre , no. 70 (Mar. 1913).

62. AD Aude 15M133, "Dossiers des grèves des communes rurales de l'arrondissement de Narbonne, 1908-1913," Le Petit Méridional , Jan. 17-19 and 24, 1913; La Dépêche de Toulouse , Jan. 17 and 19, 1913.

63. See Temma Kaplan, "Female Consciousness and Collective Action: The Case of Barcelona, 1910-1918," Signs 7 (Spring 1982): 545.

64. AD Aude 15M107, "Réunions corporatives à la bourse du travail," Le Midi socialiste , Feb. 16-19, 1913.

65. See Ferroul's and Aldy's vehement denunciations of radical "labor policy" at meetings organized by the Socialist Federation of the Aude in 1909, in AN F ⁷ 12794, Report from commissaire central to prefect, Jan. 11, 1909.

66. AN F ⁷ 12794, Telegram from prefect to minister of interior, Sept. 6, 1907; AD Aude 5M10 Reports from subprefect to prefect, Aug. 9 and Sept. 4, 1908; 5M117, Report from subprefect to prefect, Oct. 18, 1911; Hubert Rouger, La France socialiste , 35.

67. Sagnes, "Mouvement de 1907," 28; AD Aude 2M58, "Recensement général des votes."

68. Sagnes, "Mouvement de 1907," 29.

69. Inscription on Cheytion's tombstone (d. Nov. 3, 1915) in the cemetery in Coursan, erected by the Bourse du travail de Narbonne and the Syndicat des cultivateurs de Narbonne.

70. Smith, "Agricultural Workers."