1. See Charles Hamm, Music in the New World (New York: Norton, 1983), 3-23, and Gilbert Chase, America's Music , 3d ed. (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987), 395-412.

2. On the cultivated-vernacular dichotomy (actually a three-way split, with folk music), see H. Wiley Hitchcock, Music in the United States: A Historical Introduction , 3d ed. (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1988), 53-63.

3. See the thorough study by W. Douglas Bomberger, "The German Musical Training of American Students: 1850-1900" (Ph.D. diss., University of Maryland, 1991).

4. See Camilla Cai and Einar Ingvald Haugen. Ole Bull: Norway's Romantic Musician and Cosmopolitan Patriot (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1993), and Lowell Gallagher, "Jenny Lind and the Voice of America," in En travesti: Women, Gender Subversion, Opera , ed. Corinne E. Blackmer and Patricia Juliana Smith (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995), 190-215.

5. Henry A. Kmen, Music in New Orleans: The Formative Period, 1791-1841 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, [1966]), 56; more generally, see Katherine Bumpass, "The USA: A Quest for Improvement," in Music and Society: The Early Romantic Era, Between Revolutions: 1789 and 1848 , ed. Alexander Ringer, vol. [6] of Music and Society , ed. Stanley Sadie (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1991), 259-79. (The British edition of this series was entitled Man and Music .)

6. On instruments deemed acceptable to Western women in recent centuries, see Freia Hoffmann, Instrument und Körper: Die musizierende Frau in der bürgerlichen Kultur (Frankfurt a./M.: Insel Verlag, 1991).

7. Fascinating glimpses into the popularity of opera are offered in George Martin, Verdi at the Golden Gate: Opera and San Francisco in the Gold Rush Years (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1993), John Dizikes, Opera in America: A Cultural History (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993), June C. Ottenberg, Opera Odyssey: Toward a History of Opera in Nineteenth-Century America (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1994), and Katherine K. Preston, Opera on the Road: Traveling Opera Troupes in the United States, 1825-60 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1994).

8. Nancy Atwood Sprague, Pleasant Memories of My Life , ed. Elizabeth Sprague Coolidge (New York: privately printed, 1916).

9. Richard Crawford, "Studying American Music," Institute for Studies of American Music Newsletter 14, no. a (May 1985), 1-2, 10-13, quotation from p. 11. Crawford develops these ideas in The American Musical Landscape (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1993), 41-107, 250-303.

10. Beth L. Miller, "The Ridgelys of Hampton: New Perspectives on Musical Life in Nineteenth-Century Baltimore," Journal of Musicological Research 14 (1994): 35-54.

11. Recent findings of Carol Pemberton and others on Lowell Mason and the Handel and Haydn Society are reported and carried further in Michael Broyles, " Music of the Highest Class": Elitism and Populism in Antebellum Boston (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992), and in the various articles of Lowell Mason: A Realistic Portrayal , a special issue of the Quarterly Journal of Music Teaching and Learning 3, no. 2 (Fall 1992). On concerts, see Strong on Music: The New York Music Scene in the Days of George Templeton Strong, 1836-1875 , ed. Vera Brodsky Lawrence, vol. 1 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), and vols. 2-3 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995- ).

12. For example, the concerts of the Winchester Orchestral Society (1909-17), in the town hall, were "crowded and enjoyed," and "many beautiful gowns were noted in the audience" ( Winchester Star , 18 April 1913 and 9 December 1910, cited in Ellen Knight, "Music in Winchester, Massachusetts: A Community Portrait, 1830-1925," American Music 11 [1993]: 283-82, quotation from pp. 278-79).

13. These developments are traced in Hitchcock, Music in the United States , and various articles (e.g., "music education," "orchestras," "phonograph," "publishing") in The New Grove Dictionary of American Music , 4 vols., ed. H. Wiley Hitchcock and Stanley Sadie (New York: Macmillan, 1986). The question of "serious" composers' search for an American identity is discussed in Chase, America's Music , 302-19, 341-59, 379-94, and Hamm, Music in the New World , 307-38, 410-59, and explored more fully in Barbara A. Zuck, A History of Musical Americanism (Ann Arbor, Mich.: UMI Research Press, 1980), and Barbara L. Tischler, An American Music: The Search for an American Musical Identity (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986). On pianos, see Ronald V. Ratcliffe, Steinway (San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 1989), and Cyril Ehrlich, The Piano: A History , 2d ed. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990). See also two valuable overviews with annotated bibliographies: Bumpass, "USA," and Charles Hamm, "The USA: Classical, Industrial and Invisible Music," the latter in Music and Society: The Late Romantic Era, from the Mid-Nineteenth Century to World War I , ed. Jim Samson [British series title: Man and Music ] (Englewood Cliffs N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1991), 295-326.

14. Gillian B. Anderson, "Putting the Experience of the World at the Nation's Command: Music at the Library of Congress, 1800-1917," Journal of the American Musicological Society 42 (1989): 108-49. See also Oscar Sonneck and American Music , ed. William Lichtenwanger (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1983), and Carol June Bradley, American Music Librarianship: A Biographical and Historical Survey (New York: Greenwood Press, 1990), 69-83.

15. Robert A. McGaughey, "The Genius Was a Jerk," review of Charles Sanders Peirce: A Life , by Joseph Brent, New York Times Book Review , 7 February 1993, 11-12. The development of American museums is explored in Lillian B. Miller, Patrons and Patriotism: The Encouragement of the Fine Arts in the United States, 1790-1860 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966), and in Lawrence W. Levine, Highbrow/Lowbrow: The Emergence of Cultural Hierarchy in America (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1988).

16. See, e.g., Therese M. Volk, "A History of Multicultural Music Education in the Public Schools of the United States" (Ph.D. diss., Kent State University, 1993). We return to this neglected aspect of music's history in various places below, notably Chapter 7 and Chapter 10.

17. See the trenchant discussion of consumerism in Christopher Lasch, The Culture of Narcissism: American Life in an Age of Diminishing Expectations (New York: Norton, 1978).

18. See Alan Trachtenberg, The Incorporation of America: Culture and Society in the Gilded Age (New York: Hill & Wang, 1982), esp. 78-88, 140-46, and Thomas Bender, New York Intellect: A History of Intellectual Life in New York City, from 1750 to the Beginnings of Our Own Time (New York: Knopf, 1987), 206-19 (on the commercial basis of New York's literary eminence—Scribner's publishing house, The Century magazine—and on the conductor Frank Damrosch's resolutely grassroots People's Chorus). Women of modest means, profiting from the general affluence, began to indulge, although at some self-sacrifice, in stylish clothing, boat excursions, and the like. See Kathy Peiss, Cheap Amusements: Working Women and Leisure in Turn-of-the-Century New York (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1985), excerpted in Women's America: Refocusing the Past , ed. Linda K. Kerber and Jane Sherron De Hart, 3d ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 267-75. On public entertainment generally, see David Nasaw, Going Out: The Rise and Fall of Public Amusements (New York: Basic Books, 1993).

19. Hilda Satt Polacheck, I Came a Stranger: The Story of a Hull-House Girl , ed. Dena J. Polacheck Epstein (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1989), 106; she speaks also of repertory opera performances for 25¢ at the Castle Square Opera Company, besides the grander productions she frequented somewhat later at the Auditorium.

20. See Kevin V. Mulcahy, "Government and the Arts in the United States," in The Patron State: Government and the Arts in Europe, North America, and Japan , ed. Milton C. Cummings, Jr., and Richard S. Katz (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), 311-32; Dick Netzer, The Subsidized Muse: Public Support for the Arts in the United States (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978); and Nicholas E. Tawa, Serenading the Reluctant Eagle: American Musical Life, 1925-1945 (New York: Schirmer Books, 1984), 106-19.

21. On the varieties of arts funding and their ramifications, see James Heilbrun and Charles M. Gray, The Economics of Art and Culture: An American Perspective (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993). The social activist Jane Addams's reliance on her own funds (she was "her own best benefactor") and on the funds and labor of two female friends is explored in Kathryn Kish Sklar, "Who Funded Hull House?" in Lady Bountiful Revisited: Women, Philanthropy, and Power , ed. Kathleen D. McCarthy (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press 1990), 110. Characteristic American patterns of giving (e.g., Julius Rosenwald and the concept of "matching funds") are sketched, although with a one-sided emphasis on the simple goodness of the donor, in Daniel J. Boorstin, Hidden History , ed. Daniel J. Boorstin and Ruth F. Boorstin (New York: Harper & Row, 1987), 193-209.

22. A classic, evocative study of the Gilded Age and its impact is Howard Mumford Jones, The Age of Energy: Varieties of American Experience, 1865-1915 (New York: Viking, 1971).

23. Susan Curtis, A Consuming Faith: The Social Gospel and Modern American Culture (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991).

24. McGaughey, "Genius," 11-12.

25. Andrew Carnegie, The Gospel of Wealth and Other Timely Essays , ed. Edward C. Kirkland (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, Belknap Press, 1962), 32.

26. Barry D. Karl and Stanley N. Katz, "Foundations and Ruling Class Elites," Daedalus 116, no. 1 (Winter 1987): 38-89; also other articles in the same special issue of Daedalus (entitled Philanthropy, Patronage, Politics ).

27. Eric Clarke, Music in Everyday Life (New York: Norton, 1935); Randall Thomson, College Music: An Investigation for the Association of American Colleges (New York: Macmillan, 1935).

28. "Married women's property acts, devised state by state in the middle decades of the nineteenth century . . . gave married women the right to hold and manipulate their own earnings and property." The earliest enacted versions "protected only property willed or given to women," but, by the early twentieth century, revisions established a woman's right to full control over whether or not to work for wages and how to use her earnings. (Linda K. Kerber, "Separate Spheres, Female Worlds, Woman's Place: The Rhetoric of Women's History," Journal of American History 75 [1988]: 21-22.)

29. The present authors believe, along with many of these patrons, that classical music and democracy are not inherently incompatible; on the charges that such music is, by its nature, elitist, see Chapter 10.

30. Bateson invokes the musical image of jazz improvisation—"an artistic activity that is at once individual and communal, performance that is both repetitive and innovative"—to explain the shifting, adaptive life choices of five American women over the past few decades, now that a woman's life is no longer "dominated" by motherhood yet remains subject to "conflicting demands" (Mary Catherine Bateson, Composing a Life [(Boston): Atlantic Monthly Press, 1989], 2).

31. See Kathleen D. McCarthy, Women's Culture: American Philanthropy and Art, 1830-1930 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), e.g., 71-75 (Cincinnati art museum), 196-209 (Museum of Modern Art).

32. The words are Karen J. Blair's, summarizing the work of clubwomen generally ( The Clubwoman as Feminist: True Womanhood Redefined, 1868-1914 [New York: Holmes & Meier, 1980], 119). Blair, in this passage, argues that the "Domestic Feminism" typical of the club-women made it, by "its very moderation," "attractive to millions of women who were able to enrich the quality of their own lives while transforming the world of culture and reform." She expands on the art, music, pageant, and theater clubs in The Torchbearers: Women and Their Amateur Arts Associations in America, 1890-1930 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994), esp. 44-75. See also Theodora Penny Martin, The Sound of Our Own Voices: Women's Study Clubs, 1860-1910 (Boston: Beacon Press, 1987), not least the pages on "public ridicule and private satisfactions," 117-33.

33. On the "compensatory" search for "women worthies," an essential but limited version of women's history, see Gerda Lerner, The Majority Finds Its Past: Placing Women in History (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979), 145-46.

34. Kerber, "Separate Spheres," 11 (quoting Barbara Welter) and 15 (summarizing Kathryn Kish Sklar).

35. This topic is treated further in Ralph P. Locke, "Women in American Musical Life: Facts and Questions about Patronage," repercussions 3, no. 2 (Fall 1994), 81-95, and 4, no. 1 (Spring 1995), 102.

36. Marilyn Frye, The Politics of Reality: Essays in Feminist Theory (Trumansburg, N.Y.: Crossing Press, 1983), 1-16.

37. Carroll Smith-Rosenberg, "The Female World of Love and Ritual: Relations between Women in Nineteenth-Century America," Signs 1 (1975): 1-29, quotation from p. 16. Reprinted in her Disorderly Conduct: Visions of Gender in Victorian America (New York: Knopf, 1985). Among other studies of the nineteenth- and early-twentieth-century woman, see (besides various works cited in other notes in the Introduction and this chapter) The Nineteenth-Century Woman: Her Cultural and Physical World , ed. Sara Delamont and Lorna Duffin (London: Croom Helm, 1978); Harvey Green, with Mary-Ellen Perry, The Light of the Home: An Intimate View of the Lives of Women in Victorian America, with Illustrations from the Margaret Woodbury Strong Museum (New York: Pantheon Books, 1983); Frances B. Cogan, All-American Girl: The Ideal of Real Womanhood in Mid-Nineteenth-Century America (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1989); and the various testimonies gathered in Victorian Women: A Documentary Account of Women's Lives in Nineteenth-Century England, France, and the United States , ed. Erna Olafson Hellerstein, Leslie Parker Hume, and Karen M. Often (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1981).

38. Suzanne Gordon, Prisoners of Men's Dreams: Striking Out for a New Feminine Future (Boston: Little, Brown, 1991), esp. 1-16, 268-96.

39. Kerber, "Separate Spheres," 14-15, summarizing Carroll Smith-Rosenberg, Disorderly Conduct ; also Nancy F. Cott, The Bonds of Womanhood: "Woman's Sphere" in England, 1780-1835 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977).

40. Quotation from Earl Barnes, "The Feminizing of Culture," Atlantic Monthly 109 (June 1912): 770.

41. Confirming evidence and further insights can be found in Blair, Torchbearers , esp. 1-75.

42. The Friday Club: The First Hundred Years, 1887-1987 , ed. Susan Dart (Chicago: privately printed, 1987), 5-6. Henrotin was raised in luxury—partly in Europe—and her banker husband headed the Chicago Stock Exchange.

43. Ibid., 17.

44. The story of American women's struggle for professional training, opportunity, and recognition in music is briefly told in Judith Tick's "Women in Music" article (with bibliography) in the New Grove Dictionary of American Music ; in the introduction to Women in American Music: A Bibliography of Music and Literature , ed. Adrienne Fried Block and Carol Neuls-Bates (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1979); and in two chapters of Women and Music: A History , ed. Karin Pendle (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991): Adrienne Fried Block, "Women in American Music, 1800-1918" (142-72), and J. Michele Edwards, "North America since 1920" (211-57). Christine Ammer pulls together information and anecdotes in entertaining fashion in Unsung: A History of Women in American Music (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1980). Further research materials are listed in Donald W. Krummel, Jean Geil, Doris J. Dyen, and Deane L. Root, Resources of American Music History: A Directory of Source Materials from Colonial Times to World War II (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1981), and recent writings are listed in Women's Studies / Women's Status (see Introduction, n. 10) and the ongoing series The Musical Women: An International Perspective , 3 vols. to date (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1984-).

45. Kerber, "Separate Spheres," 14.

46. This fight for the right to do musical work for pay is thus related to various larger-scale women's battles. A recent and nuanced account of the latter is Christine Bolt, The Women's Movements in the United States and Britain from the 1790s to the 1920s (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1993).

47. "Minerva, we know, was partial to the flute until she discovered that in playing it she distorted her countenance most unlovelily ; but the disfigurement caused by the mild 'tooting' of the flute is as nothing compared to the hideous expansion of the cheeks induced by the action of the cornet. A lady with a cornet would be a monstrum horrendum " (from "Social Etiquette and Home Culture," in The Lounger in Society, pseud., Franklin Square Library [New York, 1881], 5-7, reprinted in Elizabeth Aldrich, From the Ballroom to Hell: Grace and Folly in Nineteenth Century Dance [Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern University Press, 1991], 127).

48. Adrienne Fried Block, assisted by Nancy Stewart, "Women in American Music, 1800-1918," in Women and Music , ed. Pendle, 142. On parallel phenomena in Europe, see also Nancy B. Reich, "Women as Musicians: A Question of Class," in Musicology and Difference , ed. Ruth A. Solie (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1993), 125-46.

49. Judith Tick, "Women in Music," in the New Grove Dictionary of American Music , 4: 554, 550. Census data indicate that "the proportion of women among teachers of music had grown from 41 percent [in 1870] to 81 percent [1910]" (Catherine Parsons Smith, "'A Distinguishing Virility': On Feminism and Modernism in American Art Music," in Cecilia Reclaimed: Feminist Perspectives on Gender and Music , ed. Susan C. Cook and Judy S. Tsou [Urbana University of Illinois Press, 1994], 90-106, quotation from p. 98).

50. Tick, "Women in Music," 551.

51. Block, "Women," 142.

52. Oscar Sonneck, Suum cuique: Essays in Music (New York: G. Schirmer, 1916), 131.

53. Quoted in Karen A. Shaffer and Neva Garner Greenwood, Maud Powell: Pioneer Violinist (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1988), 276.

54. See Rupert Hughes's review of Margaret Ruthven Lang's concert overtures, quoted in Ann E. Feldman, "Being Heard: Women Composers and Patrons at the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition," Music Library Association Notes 47 (1990-91): 18.

55. Judith Tick, "Women as Professional Musicians in America, 1870-1900," Yearbook for Inter-American Musical Research 9 (1973): 95-133; also eadem, "Passed Away Is the Piano Girl: Changes in American Musical Life, 1870-1900," and Carol Neuls-Bates, "Women's Orchestras in the United States, 1925-45," both in Women Making Music: The Western Art Tradition, 1150-1950 , ed. Jane Bowers and Judith Tick (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1986), respectively 325-48 and 349-69.

56. Shaffer and Greenwood, Maud Powell , 200.

57. Mabel Daniels, letter to Elizabeth Sprague Coolidge, 18 February 1934. Coolidge Correspondence, Library of Congress.

58. Ethel Smyth, letter to Elizabeth Sprague Coolidge, 14 May 1926, Coolidge Correspondence, Library of Congress.

59. Christine Ammer, Unsung (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1980), 121.

60. Michael G. Kammen notes a similar diversity in the tastes and activities of women who collected art and Americana ( Mystic Chords of Memory: The Transformation of Tradition in American Culture [New York: Knopf, 1991], 163-93, 266-69). Many important collectors of musical instruments were women—e.g., Mary Elizabeth Adams Brown (who formed and donated to the Metropolitan Museum of Art the massive Crosby Brown Collection); see Laurence Libin, "Musicians and Musical Instruments at the Metropolitan Museum of Art" (unpublished).

61. On jokes and negative or positive stereotypes, see Introduction, esp. nn. 8, 9, 12, 19, and 38, and the concluding paragraph of the "Structure of This Book" section; also nn. 21 and 32 in the present chapter, the end of Chapter 8, and the opening and "Misapprehensions" sections of Chapter 10.

62. McCarthy, Women's Culture , xiv-xv. Other overviews of women patrons and philanthropists are offered in Kathleen D. McCarthy, Noblesse oblige: Charity and Cultural Philanthropy in Chicago, 1849-1929 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982), 173-79, and in various chapters of Lady Bountiful Revisited: Women, Philanthropy, and Power , ed. Kathleen D. McCarthy (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1990). On Rockefeller, see Bernice Kert, Abby Aldrich Rockefeller: The Woman in the Family (New York: Random House, 1993). On men and women donors of different kinds, see Francie Ostrower, Why the Wealthy Give: The Culture of Elite Philanthropy (Princeton Princeton University Press, 1995).

63. McCarthy, Women's Culture , 179-212, quotation from p. 180. See also Sandra M. Gilbert and Susan Gubar, No Man's Land: The Place of the Woman Writer in the Twentieth Century , 3 vols. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988-94), 1: 147; and Smith, "'A Distinguishing Virility'."

64. On salons generally, in this period, see Robert M. Crunden, American Salons: Encounters with European Modernism, 1885-1917 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993); see also Steven Watson, Strange Bedfellows: The First American Avant-Garde (New York: Abbeville, 1991).

65. See esp. Linda Whitesitt, "The Role of Women Impresarios in American Concert Life, 1871-1933," American Music 7 (1989): 159-80. See also numerous references to music clubs in Blair, Clubwoman , and in eadem, The History of American Women's Voluntary Organizations, 1810-1960: A Guide to Sources (Boston: G. K. Hall, 1989).

66. The collectively hefty sum pulled in by the Metropolitan Opera Guild enables the Met to mount expensive new productions and publish its program book; the guild also publishes its own lively and expertly informative magazine, Opera News . In recent years, guild officers have included men as well as women. In 1994, about half of the officers of the guild (including two vice presidents, secretary, and assistant treasurer) were still women, but men held the powerful positions of chairman, president, chairman of the executive committee, treasurer, and managing director. Data from Alton E. Peters, "Metropolitan Opera Guild Annual Report," Opera News 59, no. 4 (October 1994): 49 (see also list of officers on p. 5).

67. "They framed into imperative demands upon their husbands, brothers, or friends in the Board . . . [their opinion that] this or that scene was performed entirely incorrectly and that the costumes were vile and that the prima donna ought to be taken out of the part. And what they said had no small power in directing the affairs of the opera house. The two or three who really knew things were wise enough to let the professional musicians alone" (W.J. Henderson, The Soul of a Tenor: A Romance [New York: Henry Holt, 1912], 68-69).

68. Consider, e.g., Mrs. Cecil Frankel of Los Angeles. Her father, A. G. Bartlett, was a cornetist, the president of the Bartlett Music Company, and a prominent supporter of the Los Angeles Philharmonic. She, in turn became president of the women's committee of the Philharmonic, organized the California Federation of Music Clubs in 1918 and served as its president, and, as a vice president of the national federation, brought the Philharmonic to the public schools for concerts, and personally sponsored—at the cost of thousands of dollars a year—the first professional string quartet recitals in southern California. She was also an amateur composer, under the name Bessie Bartlett Frankel (Catherine Parsons Smith and Cynthia S. Richardson, Mary Carr Moore: American Composer [Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1987], 110-13). A similar case—musical plus, in this case, political, as well as musico-political—is Anne Macomber Gannett (of Portland, Maine, wife of the newspaper publisher Guy Patterson Gannett), who was, at various times, an influential proponent of women's suffrage and a member of the Republican National Committee; a trustee of the New England Conservatory of Music; and board member and, beginning in 1941, president of the National Federation of Music Clubs. As vice president of the NFMC, she had urged that Congress set up a Federal Bureau of the Arts; under her presidency, in wartime, the NFMC among other things proposed that school teachers who spread "subversive and incendiary doctrines" be expelled; sponsored a radio program of Latin American music in order to support the country's good-neighbor policy; and opposed the musicians' union's ban on the making of recordings. She also helped found and set up the Berkshire Music Center at Tanglewood, served actively on the Metropolitan Opera Guild Board, and assisted the UNESCO planning team for rebuilding education in postwar Europe. See the authorized biography, by an anonymous author, Music in Her Sphere: A Biography of Anne Macomber Gannett (Portland, Maine: Guy Gannett Publishing Co., 1953), 2, 23, 36-79, 86-88, quotation from p. 43.t

69. An infamous case of women indeed taking charge is the program committee of the New York Philharmonic in 1909: four "strong-willed ladies"—as Howard Shanet puts it—plus two musicians from the orchestra. Their disagreements with Gustav Mahler as conductor have led them to be labeled clownish bunglers. ("He had ten ladies ordering him about like a puppet," Alma Mahler recalled.) But perhaps their side of the story has not been sufficiently told. See Howard Shanet, Philharmonic: A History of New York's Orchestra (New York: Doubleday, 1975), 215; also see Joseph Horowitz, Understanding Toscanini: How He Became an American Culture-God and Helped Create a New Audience for Old Music (New York: Knopf, 1987), 72-73 (including Alma's words).

70. Anne Firor Scott, Natural Allies: Women's Associations in American History (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1991), 2.

71. Corrine Moore-Lawson (of the Ladies' Musical Club of Cincinnati), cited in Chapter 2.

72. Cited in Chapter 2.

73. See Susan Moller Okin, Justice, Gender, and the Family (New York: Basic Books, 1989).

74. Carol Ann Feather, "Women Band Directors in American Higher Education," in The Musical Woman 2 (1984-85): 388-410.

75. The individuals are James Edmunds and Jackie Lyle, heads of the Performing Arts Society of Acadiana (New Iberia, Louisiana), which holds its events in the Heymann Center in Lafayette (Calvin Trillin, "Culture Shopping," New Yorker , 15 February 1993, 48-51).

76. See "Introduction," Karen Monson, "Byline Monson: Music Critic," and "Orchestra Manager on the Go: An Interview with Joan Briccetti," all in The Musical Woman , vol. 2 (1984-85): xvii-xxv, 59-70, 71-90. Also, see the Women in Opera issue of Opera News (July 1992) and, on Borda, "New Hands at the Helm," American Record Guide 55, no. 4 (July-August 1992): 10-14.

77. Northern cities have the further problem of wealthy people (and many merely comfortable people) taking their money to the Sunbelt, whether for the winter—i.e., most of the concert season—or the whole year.

78. On newspaper coverage see Nancy Malitz, "The Incredible Shrinking Arts Page," Opera News 57, no. 4 (October 1992): 18-19. On the ongoing need for board members "with status and acquaintanceship in the financial, mercantile and industrial community," see Robert Commanday, "Symphonies Suffer in California: Recession Takes Its Toll," San Francisco Chronicle , 27 December 1992, "Datebook," 36. The sudden blossoming of highly professional performing organizations in such places as Naples, Florida, is a relief for unemployed orchestral musicians and for touring chamber groups, but it does little to alleviate (and indeed feeds on—see n. 77) the implosion of the high-cultural infrastructure in many densely, populated cities of the Northeast, Midwest, Texas, and California.

79. Jane Moss, vice president of programming for New York's Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts, quoted in Jamie James, "Sex and the 'Singles' Symphony," New York Times , 2 May 1993, § H , 27.

80. In Rochester, New York, for example, the only professional opera performances (i.e., aside from the often remarkable student performances of certain operas, e.g., those of Mozart, that can safely be handled by young singers at the Eastman School) tend to take place in halls that are too big (in order to offset costs by selling large numbers of seats), with orchestras that are too small either relative to the size of the hall (too few string instruments on a part) or in absolute terms (nobody playing the second and third trombone, second oboe, and second bassoon lines), with a pocket-sized chorus, and inexperienced or uncharismatic singers in lead roles (especially when the production comes on tour from else-where). In contrast, the unstaged performances of Tosca and Walküre , act 1, done in "concert" dress, by the Rochester Philharmonic Orchestra with major guest soloists are more engaging, both musically, and, at times, dramatically. But it is a little like hearing only the audio track of a movie, and hardly an experience likely to build mass audiences for staged opera.

81. "Snap and Crackle over the Pops," Economist , 13 March 1993, 99. The article also quotes Samuel Lipman's judgment that the American elite are continuing to pour money into the visual arts "but have lost interest in supporting serious music." Betty Freeman has complained of this very pattern: people who eagerly attend art openings will not go to hear a new piece of music (interview in Rochester, 28 September 1991; see Vignette B).

82. On women volunteers, see Naomi Gerstel's sociological research, briefly reported in "Volunteerism and Women's Crowded Lives: 'Points of Light' in Sharper Focus," Massachusetts [alumni bulletin of the University of Massachusetts] 3, no. 2 (Winter 1992): 5.

1. The terms "vernacular" and "cultivated," as used by the music historian H. Wiley Hitchcock, are discussed further in Chapters 1 and 10.

2. On the "old way of singing" and on Lowell Mason and the church-music reform movement, see The New Grove Dictionary of American Music , ed. H. Wiley Hitchcock and Stanley Sadie, 4 vols. (New York: Macmillan, 1986), s.vv. "Psalmody," "Hymnody," and "Shape-Note Hymnody." Michael Broyles emphasizes certain surprising commonalities between the music published by Mason and the revivalist hymns despised by Mason and like-minded church leaders and musicians (" Music of the Highest Class": Elitism and Populism in Antebellum Boston [New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992], 33-91).

3. Rev. William H. Gleason, D.D., Pastor, Semi-Centennial Celebration of the First Reformed Protestant Church, Hudson, N.Y. (Hudson, N.Y.: M. Parker Williams, Register and Gazette, 1886), 39.

4. Ibid., 39-41, 46, 50. The organists and "leaders (choirmasters) are listed in a one-page appendix; Blanchard's middle initial there is "A." The two brief intervals in his term (noted above) were filled by Gleason (the author of the brochure; dates of service not given—p. 41) and, in 1861-62, by two people: Miss Maggie Heath as organist and Mr. John Graff as leader. Edwin C. Rowley, Esq., succeeded Blanchard in 1875, and Mrs. Emma Skinner assumed the position in 1883.

1. Further on Freeman, see John Rockwell, All American Music: Composition in the Late Twentieth Century (New York: Knopf, 1983), 67-68, 81, and especially Albrecht Dümling's detailed article- cum -interview, "First Lady zeitgenössischer Musik: Ein Porträt der kalifornischen Mäzenin Betty Freeman," Neue Zeitschrift für Musik 152, no. 2 (February 1991): 6-12.

2. The precise wording, from her September 1991 typed list (mentioned below and entitled "Betty Freeman Music Commissions & Assistance"): "John Cage: No direct commission but since the 1960's he has had a grant to do with as he wished. Cage dedicated to her The Freeman Etudes , 32 pieces for solo violin." "La Monte Young: Many years of support from 1961 through the 1970's for his living and performances."

3. "Upper partials" is the technical term for what are commonly called overtones. Much of Young's music consists of structured improvisations (often in "just intonation" rather than the equally tempered tuning of the modern piano) over long-held tones analogous to the drones played by the tanbura in the classical music of India.

4. Betty Freeman married her second husband, Franco Assetto, in 1979.

5. The traveling exhibit mentioned in the introduction to this interview has twice resulted an illustrated catalogue: Music People and Others: Fotografie di Betty Freeman (Milan: Nuova edizioni Gabriele Mazzotta, 1987), and Music People and Others: Photographs by Betty Freeman ([Berlin?]: n.p., [1991]). Both contain autobiographical data on Freeman.

6. Paul Fromm, 1906-87, immigrated from Germany to Chicago and owned the successful Great Lakes Wine Co. In 1952, to promote the composition and performance of new music, he created the Fromm Music Foundation, which for many years sponsored an annual Festival of Contemporary Music at the Berkshire Music Center at Tanglewood, the Boston Symphony Orchestra's summer home. A list of more than 150 commissioned works is printed in The New Grove Dictionary of American Music , ed. H. Wiley Hitchcock and Stanley Sadie, 4 vols. (New York: Macmillan, 1986), s.v. "Fromm Paul."

7. Several women are among the portraitees in one or the other version of Freeman's Music People catalogue: Joan La Barbara, Pauline Oliveros, Kaija Saariaho, and the artist Marian Zazeela (La Monte Young's wife and collaborator).