1. The Archbishop Ennemond came from Lyon to evangelize the Gier valley. He built a church on the hill that is now the parish of Saint Ennemond, overlooking the Gier River. The clergy and nobility who joined him in turn built a château and a fortress. The legend of Saint Ennemond imbued the city with a cultish identity. The stories of how he rescued the "naive and superstitutious" inhabitants of this valley from their oppressors continued to be recounted in the twentieth century, and regional pilgrimages to his statue in the church of Saint Ennemond, which supposedly also contained his remains, persisted until at least World War I. See M. Fournier, La vallée ardente: scènes de la vie populaire (Saint Etienne: Librairie Dubouchet, 1938), pp. 254-73. For Saint Chamond's early history, see also James Condamin, Histoire de Saint-Chamond et de la seigneurie de Jarez, depuis les temps les plus reculés jusqu'à nos jours (Paris: A. Picard, 1890), and Stéphane Bertholon, Histoires de Saint-Chamond: notes et souvenirs d'un vieux couramiaud (Saint Etienne: n.p., 1927).

2. Archives du Ministère de la Guerre, Vincennes, MR1266, "Rapport sur les environs de Saint-Chamond," 1843.

3. See, for example, Michael Mitterauer and Reinhard Sieder, The European Family: Patriarchy to Partnership from the Middle Ages to the Present, trans. Karla Oosterveen and Manfred Horzinger (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983), especially pp. 51-53, 59, 80-81, 93-97, 103-15.

4. For example, Yves Lequin, Les ouvriers de la région lyonnaise (1848-1914), 2 vols. (Lyon: Presses Universitaires de Lyon, 1977); Jacques Schnetzler, Les industries et les hommes dans la région de Saint-Etienne (Lille: Service de Reproduction des Thèses, Université de Lille III, 1976); Maxime Perrin, La population de la région de Saint-Etienne, étude de géographie humaine (Tours: Arrault, 1937); Perrin, Saint Etienne et sa région économique: un type de vie industrielle en France (Tours: Arrault, 1937); Michael Hanagan, The Logic of Solidarity: Artisans and Industrial Workers in Three French Towns, 1871-1914 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1980); Hanagan, "Urbanization, Worker Settlement Patterns and Social Protest in Nineteenth-Century France," in French Cities in the Nineteenth Century, ed. John M. Merriman (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1981), pp. 208-29; David Gordon, Merchants and Capitalists: Industrialization and Provincial Politics in Mid-Nineteenth Century France (University: University of Alabama Press, 1985); Bernard Plessy, La vie quotidienne en Forez avant 1914 (Paris: Hachette, 1981).

5. Archives Départementales de la Loire (henceforth ADL), series S, Chambre de Commerce de Saint Etienne, carton 131 dossier 9, Chambre Consultative des Arts et Manufactures de Saint-Chamond, "extrait de délibérations," 28 Sept. 1805, "Mémoire au sous-préfet sur l'industrie de la région," Archives du Ministère de la Guerre, Vincennes, MR1266, "Mémoire sur les environs de Saint-Chamond," 1843; J. Duplessy, Essai statistique sur le département de la Loire (Montbrison: n.p., 1818), pp. 184, 155.

6. Laurent Boyer, Les élections politiques dans le département de la Loire au temps de l'assemblée nationale et du Maréchal MacMahon (Paris: Sirey, 1963), p. 12.

7. Louis René Villermé, Tableau de l'état physique et moral des ouvriers employés dans les manufactures de coton, de laine et de soie, 2 vols. (Paris: Renouard, 1840); Jules Simon, L'Ouvrière (Paris: Hachette, 1891).

8. Frédéric Le Play, La réforme sociale en France, déduite de l'observation comparée des peuples européens, 2 vols. (6th ed. Tours: Mame, 1878), 2:9. For a useful discussion of Le Play and his method, see Catherine Bodard Silver, Introduction to Frédéric Le Play: On Family, Work, and Social Change, ed. and trans. Catherine Board Silver (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982), pp. 3-134.

9. Henri Cetty, La famille ouvrière en Alsace (Rixheim: A. Sutter, 1883), pp. 92-95, 170-74.

10. Ibid., pp. 17, 168.

11. Ibid., pp. 92-95, 116-17, 129, 161, 174.

12. Ibid., pp. 74, 104, 122.

13. Ibid., pp. 183-86, 190-91.

14. Cetty cites the following examples: the directors of forges expelled workers from Sunday mass if they lived en concubinage. Employers actively intervened in family disorders. They took severe measures if workers were found drunk. In all these moral matters, they threatened workers with dismissal if they did not reform their behavior. He praised other industrialists for forcing women workers to stay at home at least three weeks after the delivery of their babies: ibid., pp. 50-54, 122.

15. Cetty stated, "Broken in its most intimate ties and dearest affections, struck in the very source of life, [the family] has become the theater of such profound miseries that it has been necessary to invent a new word, 'pauperism,' in order to explain the situation that created it": ibid., p. 11.

16. See Armand Audiganne, Les populations ouvrières et les industries de la France, 2 vols. (2d ed. Paris: Capelle, 1860); Louis Reybaud, Rapport sur la condition morale, intellectuelle et matérielle des ouvriers qui vivent de l'industrie de coton (Paris: n.p., 1863). For an insightful discussion of these inquiries, see William Reddy, The Rise of Market Culture: The Textile Trade and French Society, 1750-1900 (Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1984), pp. 230-31, 233.

17. Edward P. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class (New York: Vintage Books, 1963).

18. Neil Smelser, Social Change and the Industrial Revolution (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1959); Michael Anderson, Family Structure in Nineteenth Century Lancashire (Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1971), especially pp. 136-69; Yves Lequin, Les ouvriers de la région lyonnaise, vol. 1. For a study of migration and family relations, see Leslie Page Moch, Paths to the City: Regional Migration in Nineteenth-Century France (Beverly Hills: Sage Publications, 1983), especially pp. 123-67.

19. Franklin F. Mendels coined the term; see Mendels, "Proto-Industrialization: The First Phase of the Industrialization Process," Journal of Economic History 32 (1972): 241-61. The literature on this topic has expanded ever since. For example, see Charles Tilly, "Flows of Capital and Forms of Industry in Europe, 1500-1900," Theory and Society 12 (1983): 123-42; Tilly, "Did the Cake of Custom Break?" in Consciousness and Class Experience in Nineteenth-Century Europe, ed. John M. Merriman (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1979), pp. 17-44; Maxine Berg, The Age of Manufactures: Industry, Innovation and Work in Britain, 1700-1820 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), pp. 69-86.

20. Hans Medick, "The Proto-Industrial Family Economy: The Structural Function of Household and Family during the Transition from Peasant Society to Industrial Capitalism," Social History 3 (1976): 291-315; Rudolf Braun, "Early Industrialization and Demographic Change in the Canton of Zurich," in Historical Studies of Changing Fertility, ed. Charles Tilly (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978), pp. 289-334; David Levine, Family Formation in an Age of Nascent Capitalism (New York: Academic Press, 1977); Levine, "Proto-Industrialization and Demographic Upheaval," in Essays on the Family and Historical Change, ed. Leslie Page Moch and Gary D. Stark (Arlington: Texas A&M University Press, 1983), pp. 9-34; Levine, "Production, Reproduction, and the Proletarian Family in England, 1500-1851," and Tilly, "Demographic Origins of the European Proletariat," both in Proletarianization and Family History, ed. David Levine (New York: Academic Press, 1984), pp. 87-127 and 1-85.

21. Louise A. Tilly and Joan W. Scott, Women, Work and Family (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1978), p. 232.

22. See, for example, Barbara Franzoi, "Domestic Industry: Work Options and Women's Choices," in German Women in the Nineteenth Century: A Social History, ed. John C. Fout (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1984), pp. 256-69; Marilyn Boxer, "Women in Industrial Homework: The Flowermakers of Paris in the Belle Epoque," French Historical Studies 12 (Spring 1982): 401-23.

23. Jane Humphries, "Class Struggle and the Persistence of the Working Class Family," in Cambridge Journal of Economics, 1 (Sept. 1977): 241-58, p. 250; see also Humphries, "The Working Class Family, Women's Liberation, and Class Struggle: The Case of Nineteenth Century British History," Review of Radical Political Economics 8-9 (1976-1977): 25-41.

24. Reddy, The Rise of Market Culture, p. 311.

25. For example, see Tilly and Scott, Women, Work and Family, pp. 99-100, 225-27.

26. A notable exception, though not of the nineteenth century, is the study of Jean-Pierre Bardet, Rouen aux XVII^e et XVIII^e siècles: les mutations d'un espace social, 2 vols. (Paris: Société d'Édition d'Enseignement Supérieur, 1983).

27. For an explanation of family reconstitution, see Appendix A.

28. Michelle Perrot has addressed this question in "The Three Ages of Industrial Discipline in Nineteenth-Century France," in Consciousness and Class Experience in Nineteenth-Century Europe, ed. John M. Merriman (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1979), pp. 149-68.

29. Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison, trans. Alan Sheridan (New York: Pantheon, 1977); Jacques Donzelot, The Policing of Families (New York: Pantheon, 1979); Perrot, "The Three Ages of Industrial Discipline in Nineteenth-Century France."

30. Lequin, Les ouvriers de la région lyonnaise; Hanagan, The Logic of Solidarity; Sanford Elwitt, The Making of the Third Republic: Class and Politics in France, 1868-1884 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1975); and Gordon, Merchants and Capitalists.