1. Josiah Gregg, Commerce of the Prairies (New York, 1844; reprinted Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1954), PP. 181-82.

2. See the writings of Charles Fletcher Lummis, especially The Land of Poco Tiempo (New York, 1893; reprinted Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1952).

3. Elizabeth Boyd, Popular Arts of Spanish New Mexico (Santa Fe: Museum of New Mexico Press, 1974), p. 464; Lorayne Ann Horka-Follick, Los Hermanos Penitentes: A Vestige of Medievalism in the Southwestern United States (Los Angeles: Westernlore Press, 1969).

4. Silvio Zavala, Los esclavos indios en Nueva España (Mexico City: Colegio Nacional, 1967).

5. The history of confraternities can be found in my essay, "Family Structures," in Encyclopedia of the North American Colonies (New York: Scribner's, 1993), vol. 2, pp. 672-82; José Bermejo y Carballo, Glorias religiosas de Sevilla (Seville: Imprenta y Librería del Salvador, 1882), pp. 2-5.

6. George M. Foster, "Cofradía and Compadrazgo in Spain and Spanish America," Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 9 (1953): 1-28.

7. Stephen Gudeman, "The Compadrazgo as a Reflection of the Natural and Spiritual Person," in Proceedings of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland (1971), pp. 43-49; and "Spiritual Relationships and Selecting a Godparent," Man 10 (1975): 221-37; George M. Foster, "Godparents and Social Networks in Tzintzuntzan," Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 25 (1969): 261-78; Sidney Mintz and Eric R. Wolf, "An Analysis of Ritual Co-parenthood (Compadrazgo),'' Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 6 (1950): 341-68.

8. David Herlihy, "Family," American Historical Review 96 (1991): 2-35.

9. Ramón A. Gutiérrez, When Jesus Came, the Corn Mothers Went Away: Marriage, Sexuality, and Power in New Mexico, 1500-1846 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1991), pp. 181-84; Stephen Gudeman and Stuart B. Schwartz, "Baptismal Godparents in Slavery: Cleansing Original Sin in Eighteenth-Century Bahia," in Raymond T. Smith, ed., Interpreting Kinship Ideology and Practice in Latin America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1984), pp. 35-58.

10. This distinction between vertical and horizontal confraternities is more fully elaborated in Isidoro Moreno Navarro, Las Hermandades Andaluzas: Una aproximación desde la antropología (Sevilla: Publicaciones de la Universidad de Sevilla, 1974); and Julio Caro Baroja, Razas, pueblos y linajes (Madrid: Revista del Occidente, 1957), pp. 287-88.

11. Fray José de Vera quoted in Archives of the Archdiocese of Santa Fe, Loose Documents, 1813, microfilm reel 53, frame 789.

12. Eleanor B. Adams, "The Chapel and Cofradía of Our Lady of Light in Santa Fe," New Mexico Historical Review 22 (1947): 327-41; A. Von Wuthenau, "The Spanish Military Chapels in Santa Fe and the Reredos of Our Lady of the Light," New Mexico Historical Review 10 (1935): 175-94.

13. Eleanor B. Adams and Fray Angélico Chávez, eds. and trans., The Missions of New Mexico, 1776: A Description by Fray Atanasio Domínguez (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1975), p. 18.

14. Gutiérrez, When Jesus Came, the Corn Mothers Went Away, pp. 150-56, 180-90. For a detailed analysis of the Catholic Church records on these slaves, see David M. Brugge, Navajos in the Catholic Church Records of New Mexico 1694-1875 (Tsaile, Ariz.: Navajo Community College Press, 1985).

15. Gutiérrez, When Jesus Came, the Corn Mothers Went Away, pp. 176-80.

16. On the history of Genízaros in New Mexico, see Brugge, Navajos in the Catholic Church Records; Fray Angélico Chávez, "Genízaros," in Handbook of North American Indians, ed. Alfonso Ortiz (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1979), vol. 9, pp. 198-200; Steven M. Horvath, "The Social and Political Organization of the Genízaros of Plaza de Nuestra Señora de Los Dolores de Belén, 1740-1812" (Ph.D. diss., Brown University, 1979); Frances Leon Swadesh, Los Primeros Pobladores: Hispanic Americans of the Ute Frontier (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1974).

17. Elsie Clew Parsons, Pueblo Indian Religion (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1939), pp. 543, 896. The Christianization of America's Indians is studied in Robert Ricard, The Spiritual Conquest of Mexico (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1966); Pedro Borges, Métodos misionales en la cristianización de América, siglo XVI (Madrid: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Departmento de Misionología Española, 1960); Pius J. Barth, Franciscan Education and the Social Order in Spanish North America, 1502-1821 (Chicago: Academy of American Franciscan History, 1950); Lino Gómez Canedo, Evangelización y conquista: Experiencia Franciscana en Hispanoamérica (Mexico City: Editorial Porrua, 1977).

18. William B. Taylor, "Magistrates of the Sacred: Parish Priests and Indian Parishioners in Eighteenth-Century Mexico" (unpublished manuscript).

19. On the prohibition of Indian slavery in the New Laws, see Zavala, Los esclavos indios en la Nueva España, pp. 107-14, 179-92, 223. The 1680 Compilation of the Law of the Indies' restrictions on Indian slavery are in Laws 1 (Title 2), 12, 13, 14, and 16 of Book 6, Recopilación de leyes de los reynos de las Indias (Madrid, 1681).

20. Orlando Patterson, Slavery and Social Death: A Comparative Study (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1982), p. 64.

21. In Franciscan mystical thought, one reaches spiritual perfection by traversing a tripartite route through purgation, illumination, and union. On Franciscan mysticism, see John Moorman, A History of the Franciscan Order from its Origins to the Year 1517 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1968); Randolph E. Daniel, The Franciscan Concept of Mission in the High Middle Ages (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1975).

22. Adams and Chávez, The Missions of New Mexico, p. 42.

23. Archivo General de la Nación (Mexico City), Historia 25-25:229.

24. Adams and Chávez, The Missions of New Mexico, p. 259.

25. Gutiérrez, When Jesus Came, the Corn Mothers Went Away, p. 189.

26. Olen E. Leonard, The Role of the Land Grant in the Social Organization and Social Processes of a Spanish American Village in New Mexico (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1970), pp. 92-109.

27. Dorothy Woodward, The Penitentes of New Mexico (New York: Arno Press, 1974), pp. 266-67; Horka-Follick, Los Hermanos Penitentes, pp. 130-33.

28. Adams and Chávez, The Missions of New Mexico, pp. 29, 80, 150.

29. Spanish Archives of New Mexico, microfilm reel 21, frame 686; Marta Weigle, Brothers of Light, Brothers of Blood: The Penitentes of the Southwest (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1976), p. 44.

30. Richard E. Ahlborn, ThePenitente Moradas of Abiquiu (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1968); Bainbridge Bunting et al., "Penitente Brotherhood Moradas and Their Architecture," in Marta Weigle, ed., Hispanic Arts and Ethnohistory in the Southwest (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1983), pp. 31-80.

31. Weigle, Brothers of Light, Brothers of Blood, p. 33; Boyd, Popular Arts of Spanish New Mexico, p. 449.

32. Peña quoted in Jean Baptiste Salpointe, Soldiers of the Cross: Notes on the Ecclesiastical History of New Mexico, Arizona and Colorado (Banning, Calif.: St. Boniface's Industrial School Press, 1898), p. 161.

33. Salpointe quoted in Laurence Lee, "Los Hermanos Penitentes," El Palacio 8 (1920): 5.

34. Munro Edmonson, Los Manitos: A Study of Institutional Values (New Orleans: Tulane University, Middle American Research Institute, 1957), PP. 33-35.

35. Juan B. Rael, The New Mexican "Alabado " (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1951).

36. As far as I can surmise, Charles Fletcher Lummis was the first person to imply that the surrogate Christ in Good Friday Penitente rituals actually died on the cross. See Lummis, The Land of Poco Tiempo, p. 79. Subsequent references to this work appear in text.

37. On the relationship between print capitalism and nationalism, see Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London: Verso, 1983).

38. Sylvia Rodríguez, "Art, Tourism, and Race Relations in Taos: Toward a Sociology of the Art Colony," Journal of Anthropological Research 45 (1989): 77-99; and "Land, Water, and Ethnic Identity in Taos," in Charles Briggs and John Van Ness, eds., Land, Water and Culture: New Perspectives on Hispanic Land Grants (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1988), pp. 313-403.

39. Edwin R. Bingham, Charles F. Lummis (San Marino, Calif.: Huntington Library Publication, 1955).

40. Edward W. Said, Orientalism (New York: Vintage Books, 1979).

41. William B. Taylor, "Mexico as Oriental: Early Thoughts on a History of American and British Representations since 1821" (unpublished paper, 1990).

42. Mary Louise Pratt, Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation (New York: Routledge, 1992), p. 134.

43. Personal conversation with Gabriel Melendez, November 1994. Melendez is currently a member of the fraternidad and is the son of M. Santos Melendez, who for many years was the Hermano Supremo Arzobispal of the Concilio Supremo Arzobispal de la Fraternidad Piadosa de Nuestro Padre Jesús Nazareno.

44. Mabel Dodge Luhan, Edge of Taos Desert: An Escape to Reality (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Co, 1937), pp. 125-27.

45. Molly H. Mullin, "The Patronage of Difference: Making Indian Art 'Art,' Not Ethnology," Cultural Anthropology 7 (November 1992): 395-424; Warren Susman, Culture and Commitment, 1929-1945 (New York: George Braziller, 1973), pp. 2-8; and Culture as History: The Transformation of American Society in the Twentieth Century (New York: Pantheon, 1984), pp. 153-54.

46. Mullin, "The Patronage of Difference," p. 400.

47. Quoted in ibid., p. 412.

48. Roland F. Dickey, New Mexico Village Arts (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1949), pp. vii, 251-52.

49. Larry Torres, "Brief History of the Penitente Brotherhood," speech given at The Penitente Brotherhood: Art, Architecture and Ritual Conference, Albuquerque, New Mexico, September 10, 1994.

50. Floyd Trujillo, "The Morada within the Village," speech given at The Penitente Brotherhood: Art, Architecture and Ritual Conference, Albuquerque, New Mexico, September 10, 1994.

51. Gabriel Melendez, comments given at The Penitente Brotherhood: Art, Architecture and Ritual Conference, Albuquerque, New Mexico, September 10 1994.

52. Felipe Ortega, "Morada Music and Ritual," speech given at The Penitente Brotherhood: Art, Architecture and Ritual Conference, Albuquerque, New Mexico, September 10, 1994.

53. See Peter Nabokov, Tijerina and the Courthouse Raid (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1960); Michael Jenkinson, Tijerina (Albuquerque: Paisano Press, 1968).