1. Roland Barthes by Roland Barthes, trans. Richard Howard (London: Macmillan, 1977), pp. 170-72.

2. It is a sentimental derivative of Claes Jansz Visscher's long view of London; see Irwin Smith, Shakespeare's Globe Playhouse (London: Peter Owen, 1963), pp. 20-23. I am indebted to Susan Schweik for showing me the advertisement.

3. Robert Fraser and Michael Wilson, Privatisation: The UK Experience and International Trends (London: Longman, 1988), pp. 81-82.

4. In this, Ordnance was only typical—like Bimec, Thorn EMI, Wickman Bennett, Racal, Churchill, and many continental European companies. See "How Minister Helped British Firms to Arm Saddam's Soldiers," Sunday Times, December 2, 1990, p. 5. John Drakakis drew this article to my attention.

5. Financial Times, February 27, 1991, pp. 22, 23.

6. "How Minister Helped British Firms," p. 5.

7. E. K. Chambers, Sir Henry Lee: An Elizabethan Portrait (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1936), pp. 121, 119-27; and see H. C. Tomlinson, Guns and

Government: The Ordnance Office under the Later Stuarts (London: Royal Historical Society, 1979), pp. 1-6.

8. John Fekete, The Critical Twilight (London: Routledge, 1977), p. 195. See Jonathan Dollimore, Radical Tragedy, 2d ed. (Hemel Hempstead: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1989), ch. 3.

9. The Autobiography of Thomas Whythorne, ed. James M. Osborn (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1961), pp. xxviii-xxx, 83-86, 298-99.

10. Thomas Carlyle, On Heroes, Hero-Worship and the Heroic in History (London: James Frazer, 1841), p. 181; quoted by Malcolm Evans, Signifying Nothing: Truth's True Contents in Shakespeare's Text, 2d ed. (Hemel Hempstead: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1989), p. 88; and see pp. 86-108. Wilson Knight is quoted by Terence Hawkes, That Shakespeherean Rag: Essays on a Criticial Process (London: Methuen, 1986), p. 68. See also Peter Widdowson, ed., ReReading English (London: Methuen, 1982); Graham Holderness, ed., The Shakespeare Myth (Manchester Univ. Press, 1988); Chris Baldick, The Social Mission of English Criticism, 1848-1932 (Oxford Univ. Press, 1983); Ania Loomba, Gender, Race, Renaissance Drama (Manchester Univ. Press, 1989).

11. The Prose Works of Fulke Greville, Lord Brooke, ed. John Gouws (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986), pp. 42, 45, 200.

12. J. Hillis Miller, "Presidential Address, 1986: The Triumph of Theory, the Resistance to Reading, and the Question of the Material Base," PMLA 102 (1987): 281-91, p. 287.

13. Letter from James Wood, London Review of Books, March 8, 1990; responding to a review article by Terence Hawkes in the issue of February 22.

14. Letter from Alan Sinfield, London Review of Books, April 19, 1990; see also the letter from John Drakakis in the issue of June 14.

15. See Raymond Williams, "Base and Superstructure in Marxist Cultural Theory," in Williams, Problems in Materialism and Culture (London: New Left Books, 1980).

16. Catherine Belsey, The Subject of Tragedy (London: Methuen, 1985), pp. 101-3; see also id., "Shakespeare and Film: A Question of Perspective," Literature/Film Quarterly 11 (1983): 152-58. For the case against "humanity," see, e.g., John Drakakis, ed., Alternative Shakespeares (London: Methuen, 1985), p. 4.

17. Quoted by Arthur Humphreys, ed., Julius Caesar (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984), p. 52.

18. John Ripley, "Julius Caesar" on Stage in England and America, 1599-1973 (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1980), pp. 23-24, 28, 147.

19. Ibid., p. 100; Alfred Van Rensselaer Westfall, American Shakespearean Criticism, 1607-1865 (New York: H. W. Wilson, 1939), p. 221.

20. Ripley, "Julius Caesar," p. 317.

21. Raphael Samuel, Ewan MacColl, and Stuart Cosgrove, Theatres of the Left, 1880-1935 (London: Routledge, 1985), pp. 8-9; see also E. P. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class, rev. ed. (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1968), p. 809. Julius Caesar is quoted from the New Arden edition, ed. T. S. Dorsch (London: Methuen, 1955), 1.2.94-95.

22. Ripley, "Julius Caesar," pp. 140, 332. For further discussion of the history of Shakespearean stage productions in the United States, see chapter 10 below.

23. Ida M. Tarbell, The Life of Abraham Lincoln (New York: McClure, Phillips, 1908), 2:252-60. Tarbell's account is laced with implicit allusions to Julius Caesar, such as the tearing down of banners, speech-making, and crowd action against opponents; 3.2.135-39 is quoted (pp. 246-51).

24. David Donald, Lincoln Reconsidered, 2d ed. (New York: Knopf, 1965), p. 5; Michael Rogin, "Ronald Reagan," The Movie (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1987), pp. 86-90, and illustrations 3.3, 3.4, 3.5. In 1939 Julius Caesar was found to have been the one most read in schools: see Esther Cloudman Dunn, Shakespeare in America (1939; New York: Benjamin Blom, 1968), pp. 219-20, 244.

25. Robert Justin Goldstein, Political Repression in Modern America from 1870 to the Present (Cambridge, Mass.: Schenkman, 1978), pp. 24-34.

26. Ripley, "Julius Caesar," p. 223.

27. See Victor S. Navasky, Naming Names (New York: Viking Press, 1980), pp. 179-81. For the idea and the reference I am indebted to Vivian Sobchack, who placed Mankiewicz's Caesar in this context in a talk at Santa Cruz in 1988. On the liberalism of this film, see Belsey, "Shakespeare and Film."

28. See Ripley, "Julius Caesar," p. 260. However, Glen Byam Shaw's 1957 Stratford production re-centred Caesar: see Roy Walker, "Unto Caesar: A Review of Recent Productions," Shakespeare Survey 11 (1958): 128-35.

29. Ralph Berry, On Directing Shakespeare (London: Croom Helm, 1977), pp. 75-81.

30. Interview with Trevor Nunn in Berry, On Directing Shakespeare, pp. 63-66; quotation from Nunn in Ripley, "Julius Caesar," p. 270. For further comparable productions, see Humphreys, ed., Julius Caesar, pp. 66-71; Martin Spevack, ed., Julius Caesar (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1988), P. 40.

31. See Jonathan Goldberg, James I and the Politics of Literature (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1983), pp. 163-76.

32. The time set for the inauguration of President Reagan had to be changed when astrologers said it was unfavorable for him. See Garry Wills, Reagan's America (New York: Doubleday, 1987), pp. 299, 196-97.

33. However, at the time of her removal from office, Mrs. Thatcher was widely compared to Julius Caesar, mainly in respect of the treachery of her colleagues: see the Guardian, November 26, 1990, p. 35.

34. Annabel Patterson, Shakespeare and the Popular Voice (Oxford: Blackwell, 1989), pp. 11, 129.

35. Richard Wilson," 'Is this a holiday?': Shakespeare's Roman Carnival," English Literary History 54 (1987): 31-44, pp. 32-33. See Peter Stallybrass and Allon White, The Politics and Poetics of Transgression (London: Methuen, 1986), Introduction.

36. Here I disagree with David Margolies, "Teaching the Handsaw to Fly: Shakespeare as a Hegemonic Instrument," in Holderness, ed., Shakespeare Myth, p. 44.

37. S. A. Cook, F. E. Adcock, and M. P. Charlesworth, eds., The Cambridge Ancient History (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1932), 9:291-93, 334-36.

38. Niccolò Machiavelli, The Discourses 1.57-58, ed. Bernard Crick (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1974), pp. 251, 255.

39. Dorsch, ed., Julius Caesar, pp. 138-39.

40. Thomas Kyd, The First Part of Hieronimo and The Spanish Tragedy, ed. Andrew S. Cairncross (London: Arnold, 1967), 1.1.90-91.

41. See Sinfield, "Royal Shakespeare," in Jonathan Dollimore and Alan Sinfield, eds., Political Shakespeare (Manchester: Manchester Univ. Press; Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell Univ. Press, 1985), p. 160.

42. See Richard Wilson's powerful article," 'A mingled yarn': Shakespeare and the Cloth Workers," Literature and History 12 (1986): 164-80, pp. 167-69; also my program note, "History and Power," for the Royal Shakespeare Company production of The Plantagenets (two reconstructed Henry VI plays plus Richard III ), directed by Adrian Noble in 1988.

43. See Pierre Macherey, A Theory of Literary Production, trans. Geoffrey Wall (London: Routledge, 1978); also Jonathan Goldberg, "Speculations: Macbeth and Source," in Jean E. Howard and Marion F. O'Connor, eds., Shakespeare Reproduced (New York: Methuen, 1987), p. 247; and my chapter 2.

44. I rehearse here the argument in Sinfield, "Four Ways with a Reactionary Text," LTP: Journal of Literature Teaching Politics 2 (1983): 81-95.

45. Jonathan Dollimore, "Middleton and Barker: Creative Vandalism," in the program for the Royal Court production of Women Beware Women, published with a text of the play as Playscript 111 (London: Calder; New York: Riverrun, 1986). See also Dollimore's imagined camp production of Antony and Cleopatra, in Dollimore, "Shakespeare, Cultural Materialism, Feminism and Marxist Humanism," New Literary History 21 (1990): 471-93, pp. 484-90.

46. Marowitz's own account; in Charles Marowitz and Simon Trussler, eds., Theatre at Work (London: Methuen, 1967), p. 170.

47. Charles Marowitz, The Marowitz Hamlet (London: Allen Lane, 1968), pp. 16, 18. For discussion of this and Shakespearean plays by Tom Stoppard, Arnold Wesker, and Edward Bond, see Alan Sinfield, "Making Space: Appropriation and Confrontation in Recent British Plays," in Holderness, ed., Shakespeare Myth .

48. See the interviews with Bogdanov and Miller in Holderness, ed., Shakespeare Myth, pp. 89-91, 195, 200-202, and p. 182. On recent work by Bogdanov and the scope for radical productions, see Isobel Armstrong, "Thatcher's Shakespeare," Textual Practice 3 (1989): 1-14.

49. Raymond Williams, Culture (Glasgow: Fontana, 1981), p. 225; Humphreys, ed., Julius Caesar, p. 71.

50. Charles Marowitz, The Marowitz Shakespeare (London: Marion Boyars, 1978), p. 24. See Sinfield, "Making Space," and also, on Wesker's play, p. 300 below.

51. Robert S. Miola, Shakespeare's Rome (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1983), p. 96.

52. Richard Wilson points out that Jack Cade and his supporters are hostile to writing (" 'A mingled yarn,' " p. 168).

53. See Ann Thompson's New Cambridge edition of Shakespeare, The Taming of the Shrew (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1984), pp. 35-36, and the Bogdanov interview in Holderness, ed., Shakespeare Myth , p. 90.

54. A further clue: don't forget the spelling. This advertisement has been current for some months; it appeared in the Daily Mirror on February 25, 1991 (p. 13) immediately next to the following news report:

MPs Slam "Degree in Gays"

Students at a university are being offered a degree course in gay and lesbian studies. But the one year course at Sussex University in Brighton is under attack by Tory MPs. Terry Dicks said it was a waste of taxpayers' subsidy. "The place should be shut down and disinfected," he said.

It would be good if we could make Shakespeare comparably disconcerting.

55. Walter Benjamin, Illuminations , ed. Hannah Arendt, trans. Harry Zohn (Glasgow: Fontana/Collins, 1973), pp. 258-59.