1. Anton Chekhov, The Island: A Journey to Sakhalin , trans. Luba and Michael Terpak (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1977), p. xxxiv. Throughout this chapter I will use Karafuto to refer to the portion of the island under Japanese rule and Sakhalin otherwise. Likewise, I will use only the Japanese versions of place names.

2. Karafuto cho, ed., Karafuto choji ippan , 1915 ed. (Toyohara: Karafuto cho, 1916); Karafuto cho, ed., Daiikkai kokusei chosa hokoku (Toyohara: Kara-futo cho, 1923), pp. 179-81. Takakura, Hokkaido takushoku shi , p. 281, states that in 1909 fishers constituted forty-three percent of the households and seventy-two percent of the Karafuto Wajin population of about 24,000. This proportion dropped as farmers and other immigrants came in.

3. Taniguchi Hidesaburo, Karafuto shokumin seisaku (Tokyo: Takushoku shinposha, 1914), p. 337.

4. For a general history of Sakhalin in English, see John J. Stephan, Sakhalin: A History (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 197l). For a short account of Japanese rule in Karafuto, see Takakura, Hokkaido takushoku shi , chap. 7. On the native peoples of Sakhalin and their ties to the Hokkaido Ainu, see Uemura, Kita no umi no koekishatachi, pp. 21-38. On Japanese fishing activities in Sakhalin before 1905, see Tanba Heitaro, Roryo Sagaren-to gyogyo chosa hokoku (Tokyo: Noshomusho suisankyoku, 1900).

5. Carol Gluck, Japan's Modern Myths (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985); Andrew Gordon, Labor and Imperial Democracy in Prewar Japan (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991); Lewis, Rioters and Citizens .

6. The Provisional Order ( Karafuto gyogyo karikisoku ) is reprinted in Okada Yoshitane, ed., Karafuto-to shokisoku ruiju (Wakkanai: Karafuto shinbunsha, 1906), pp. 1-5. It formed the basis for the Karafuto Fishery Law ( Karafuto gyogyo rei ) (Imperial Ordinance 96, 31 March 1907; amended through Imperial Ordinances 252, October 1908, and 318, December 1908), which is reprinted in Karafuto cho chokan kanbo, ed., Karafuto horei ruiju (Toyohara: Karafuto cho, 1909), pp. 479-81.

7. This income declined gradually as tax revenues from other industries increased but still accounted for twenty-five percent (550,419 yen) in 1916. Karafuto teichi gyogyo suisan kumiai, ed., Karafuto to gyogyo (Toyohara: Karafuto teichi gyogyo suisan kumiai, 1931 ), pp. 283-84.

8. The Fishing License Regulations (Gyogyo kansatsu kisoku) (Dept. of Civil Affairs Notification 4, 3 October 1905) and amendments (Dept. of Civil Affairs Notifications 5, 9 October 1905, and 6, 14 October 1905), are reprinted in Okada, Karafuto-to shokisoku ruiju, pp. 55-61.

9. Sugimoto Zennosuke, Karafuto gyosei kaikaku enkakushi (Maoka: Karafuto gyosei kaikaku enkakushi kankokai, 1935), p. 11. The number of licensed cod boats doubled between 1906 and 1907 1836 to 1,705), but catches did not rise accordingly--the result, according to the official view of the Karafuto government, of an influx of inexperienced newcomers. Karafuto cho, ed., Karafuto yoran, 1907 ed. (Tokyo: Ryubunkan, 1908), pp. 176-78.

10. Sugimoto, Karafuto gyosei kaikaku enkakushi , p. 46.

11. Karafuto cho, ed., Karafuto choji ippan , 1910 ed. (Toyohara: Karafuto cho, 1911 ), p. 20; Karafuto cho, Daiikkai kokusei chosa hokoku, pp. 179-81.

12. "Nodasan gyokyo," Karafuto nichinichi shinbun , 25 May 1911.

13. Sugimoto, Karafuto gyosei kaikaku enkakushi , p. 21. The government noted with approval in 1908 that "a market, albeit a small one, has emerged for fresh herring for cod bait," to supplement the less profitable production of herring meal. Karafuto cho, Karafuto yoran (1907 ed.), p. 173.

14. Sugimoto, Karafuto gyosei kaikaku enkakushi , pp. 25-26.

15. Emori, "Nemuro chiho ni okeru nishin sashiami seigan undo."

16. Sugimoto, Karafuto gyosei kaikaku enkakushi , pp. 27, 28.

17. Tsuji Seitaro, Karafuto-to kaihatsu ni kansuru seigan [1907], RCNS. Sugimoto, Karafuto gyosei kaikaku enkakushi , pp. 30-42, reprints the petition and gives a sympathetic summary of the events surrounding its presentation.

18. Karafuto teichi gyogyo suisan kumiai, Karafuto to gyogyo, pp. 169-202.

19. Ibid., pp. 152-53.

20. The petition was adopted by the House of Representatives on the recommendation of the Petition Committee on 27 March 1907. Dai-Nippon teikoku gikai shi kankokai, ed., Dai-Nippon teikoku gikai shi (Tokyo: Dai-Nippon teikoku gikai shi kankokai, 1930), vol. 6 [23rd Imperial Diet], p. 1671.

21. See Wada's report on the prospects of the Karafuto fishery, presented to the governor of Hokkaido in December 1905: "Karafuto-to gyogyo chosa hokoku" [1905], RCNS.

22. "Karafuto-to jumin kyuzai ni tsuki seigan," reprinted in Sugimoto, Karafuto gyosei kaikaku enkakushi , p. 58.

23. Ibid., p. 60.

24. Karafuto cho, Karafuto yoran (1907 ed.), pp. 173, 180-81.

25. In 1906 the cod fishery was still dominated by experienced fishers, who harvested 112.5 tons or more of fish each, while in 1907 the average catch dropped by half or more. Ibid., pp. 178-79.

26. Karafuto cho, ed., Karafuto yoran, 1913 ed. (Toyohara: Karafuto cho, 1914), p. 124.

27. Sugimoto, Karafuto gyosei kaikaku enkakushi , pp. 75-76. The petition, "Sashiami kumiai tokkyo no gi ni tsuki seigan," is reprinted on pp. 76-90.

28. Karafuto tateami gyogyo suisan kumiai rengokai, ed., Hoppo gyogyo no shiori (Tokyo: Karafuto tateami gyogyo suisan kumiai rengokai, 1912), p. 10.

29. The petition, "Karafuto-to nishin sashiami gyogyo hinin no seigansho," is reprinted in Sugimoto, Karafuto gyosei kaikaku enkakushi , pp. 93-101.

30. Item 10 of the petition, ibid., pp. 98-99.

31. Taniguchi, Karafuto shokumin seisaku , pp. 337-38.

32. Ibid.

33. "Gyoson no shinfucho," Karafuto nichinichi shinbun , 28 October 1913.

34. Karafuto tateami gyogyo suisan kumiai rengokai, Hoppo gyogyo no shiori , p. 10.

35. On the committee discussion, see Sugimoto, Karafuto gyosei kaikaku enkakushi , pp. 101-6; for the floor of the Diet, see Dai-Nippon teikoku gikai shi kankokai, Dai-Nippon teikoku gikai shi , vol. 7 [24th Imperial Diet], pp. 123 (House of Peers), 552 (House of Representatives).

36. Sugimoto, Karafuto gyosei kaikaku enkakushi , p. 163. On Hiraoka, see also Sugimoto Ken, Karafuto: Kaerazaru shima (Tokyo: TBS-Buritanika, 1979), pp. 196-203, and Saga Rentaro [Nagai Kenzo], "Kanritsu" Karafuto chugakko to Natsume Soseki (Sapporo: Minami Karafuto mondai kenkyujo, 1987), pp. 22-30.

37. The application of the revised national Fishery Law (Law 58, 1910) to Karafuto in 1911 provided for the establishment of cooperatives at the discretion of the governor. Karafuto cho, ed., Karafuto cho shisei sanjunen shi (Toyohara: Karafuto cho, 1936), p. 327.

38. Karafuto cho, Karafuto yoran (1913 ed.), pp. 116-17.

39. "Kaizen no daiippo (futatabi kumiai gyoba ron)," Karafuto nichinichi shinbun , 22 October 1910; "Kumiai gyoba kakushinkai," ibid., 3 July 1913.

40. "Karafuto gyomin no boko," Yomiuri shinbun , 11 June 1909.

41. Cited in Sugimoto, Karafuto gyosei kaikaku enkakushi , pp. 185-86.

42. Taniguchi, Karafuto shokumin seisaku , p. 317; Tazawa Miho [Rishichi], Karafuto kigyoka no shishin (Toyohara: Karafuto kigyoka no shishinsha, 1924), pp. 187-88.

43. Ichiki canceled a planned tour of inspection of the west coast because of "unrest among small fishers" in the area. "Karafuto no fuon," Yomiuri shinbun , 16 June 1909.

44. Sugimoto, Karafuto gyosei kaikaku enkakushi , pp. 172-81, reprints a large part of the Karafuto District Court decision on the case.

45. The court decision includes extended quotations (ibid., pp. 174-77) of the Karafuto jiji articles.

46. See, for example, "Mitsuryo nishin no bosshu," Karafuto nichinichi shinbun , 23 May 1911.

47. "Nayashi tayori," Karafuto nichinichi shinbun , 17 July 1910.

48. Kyogoku Takayoshi, Nomura Masuzo, and Todo Terumaru, Karafuto no kenkyu (Tokyo: Yamada Saburo, 1914), 1: 12-14.

49. "Chinjosho," reprinted in Sugimoto, Karafuto gyosei kaikaku enkakushi , pp. 236-42.

50. Items 5 and 7, ibid., pp. 238-39.

51. See the discussion in ibid., pp. 244-50.

52. The petitions are reprinted or summarized in ibid., pp. 261-87.

53. The petition to Hara, in ibid., p. 282.

54. "Karafuto gyosei kaisei hantai no riyu," reprinted in part in ibid., pp. 290-98.

55. Item 5, Section 3, ibid., p. 296.

56. See ibid., pp. 307-12, for a blow-by-blow account.

57. Kyogoku, Nomura, and Todo, Karafuto no kenkyu 1: 10-14. Hiraoka himself admitted that problems of timing and scale made it difficult to balance fishing and farming--as did the indisposition of the family fishers toward agriculture. "Chokan no shisei hoshin: Nijukunichi Karafuto cho ni oite shisatsudan ni taisuru setsumei," Karafuto nichinichi shinbun , 4 July 1913.

58. Kyogoku, Nomura, and Todo, Karafuto no kenkyu 1: 17-21. The delegation read but did not formally present the seventh and eighth points to Hiraoka and later cut them from their statement. In the formal petition presented to Hi-raoka they amended the sixth point to read, "some appropriate means other than pound traps" in place of "gill nets."

59. Yamamiya Tokichi, Karafuto no kenkyu (Tokyo: Yamada Saburo, 1914), 2:20-21.

60. Ibid., pp. 22-25.

61. Taniguchi Hidesaburo, ed., Hiraoka Karafuto cho chokan danwa: Kara-futo no gyogyo seido (n.p.: Karafuto kyokai, [1913]), pp. 8-17.

62. Sugimoto Ken, Karafuto: Kaerazaru shima , pp. 196-97, 203; Saga, "Kanritsu" Karafuto chugakko to Natsume Soseki, pp. 22-30.

63. "Hiraoka chokan jinin," Karafuto nichinichi shinbun , 6 June 1914. The article makes no mention of the scandals, nor, indeed, does it give any reason at all for Hiraoka's resignation.

64. "Karafuto gyogyo seido ni kansuru seigan," reprinted in Sugimoto, Karafuto gyosei kaikaku enkakushi , pp. 352-54.

65. "Karafuto gyosei kaisei ni kanshi seigan," reprinted in ibid., pp. 354-57.

66. Teikoku gikai kizokuin giji sokkiroku (Tokyo: Tokyo daigaku shuppankai, 1981), vol. 30 [29th-35th Imperial Diets, part 21, pp. 298-300.

67. Article 5, Karafuto Fishery Law, amended through imperial Ordinance 106, 3 July 1915. Karafuto tateami gyogyo suisan kumiai rengokai , ed., Kaisei Karafuto gyogyo hoki (Hakodate: Karafuto tateami gyogyo suisan kumiai rengokai , 1917), pp. 31-33.

68. "Gyogyorei kaisei ni tsuki Okada chokan dan," Karafuto nichinichi shinbun , 4 July 1915.

69. "Chumoku subeki yudan," Karafuto nichinichi shinbun , 4 July 1915; "Juken sonpo," ibid., 6 July 1915; "Nokoru mondai," ibid., 7 July 1915; "Kore mo itten," ibid., 8 July 1915; "Gokai o saru toki,'' ibid., 9 July 1915.

70. "Maoka no chochin gyoretsu," Karafuto nichinichi shinbun , 7 July 1915 (lantern parade); "Odomari sashiami shukugikai," ibid., 23 July 1915 (memorial service).

71. Karafuto cho, Karafuto cho shisei sanjunen shi , p. 326. On the trading of fisheries from the pound-trap operators' point of view, see Karafuto teichi gyogyo suisan kumiai, Karafuto to gyogyo, pp. 307-8.

72. Tazawa, Karafuto kigyoka no shishin , pp. 191-92.

73. "Kaizen no daiippo (futatabi kumiai gyoba ron)," Karafuto nichinichi shinbun , 22 October 1910.

74. An apparent example of an ideal cooperatively held company (notwithstanding the fact that it tottered on the brink of bankruptcy in 1911) is one set up by the "comparatively industrious small fishers" of the Seventh West Coast Cooperative. ("Nishi kaigan no shokaisha," Karafuto nichinichi shinbun , 7 January 1911.) All sorts of financial monkey business surrounded the management of the Fifth West Coast and Third Aniwa Bay cooperatives. ("Nayoro kumiai tai dantai funjo jiken no shinso," ibid., 7 January 1911; ''Odomari no daigigoku," ibid., 18 January 1911.)

75. "Kumiai gyoba no kongo: Keiyaku kaijo ikan," ibid., 9 July 1915; "Ku-miai gyoba chinshakusha shitsumon: Wannai keieisha no shucho," ibid., 10 July 1915.

76. "Gyogyoken taishaku keiyakusho" [1917], Hokkaido Prefectural Library.

77. Karafuto tateami gyogyo suisan kumiai rengokai, ed., Taisho sannen kaisei gyogyoryo narabi ni saikin sankanen shukakudaka (n.p., 1915), pp. 35-36.

78. Suzuki Tayoji, Karafuto suisan dantai taikan (Odomari: Karafuto suisansha, 1935), p. 209.

79. Karafuto cho, Karafuto cho shisei sanjunen shi , p. 325. Between 1905 and 1913 the northwest coast of Karafuto had the most desirable fisheries, but they declined sharply after that; the coast of Aniwa Bay and the central and southern parts of the east coast were productive between 1913 and 1918 but faded later. See Karafuto gyosei no enkaku , c. 1921, Hokkaido Prefectural Library.

80. Toyama Shin'ichiro, Karafuto no jijo to shorai (n.p., c. 1923), pp. 7-8.

81. Regulations Concerning the Application of the Fishery Law in Karafuto ( Karafuto ni okeru gyogyoho shiko kisoku ), Departmental Ordinance 12, 1926. Reprinted in Karafuto cho, Karafuto cho shisei sanjunen shi , pp. 326-27.

82. Otaka Kentaro and Nishikawa Yoshihiro, "Karafuto no gyogyo chosa: Karafuto no suisan," in "Oshoro-maru Showa hachinendo renshu kokai gyogyo chosa hokokusho," ed. Hokkaido teikoku daigaku suisan senmonbu gyoroka (1933), RCNS.

83. Ibid.

84. Ibid.

85. The statistics used in the following discussion are from the descriptions of fishing cooperatives in Suzuki, Karafuto suisan dantai taikan , pp. 78-252.

86. Ibid., p. 95.

87. Ibid., pp. 214-15.

88. Taniguchi, Karafuto shokumin seisaku , p. 314.

89. Otaka and Nishikawa, "Karafuto no gyogyo chosa"; Suzuki, Karafuto suisan dantai taikan , p. 295.

90. Karafuto tateami gyogyo suisan kumiai rengokai, Taisho sannen kaisei gyogyoryo narabi ni saikin sankanen shukakudaka, pp. 1-59; on Nichiro Gyogyo, see the company history: Okamoto Nobuo, Nichiro Gyogyo keiei shi (Tokyo: Suisansha, 1971).

91. Sato Suguru, Oguma Koichiro den (Hakodate: Hakodate shoko kaigisho, 1958), pp. 122-46.

92. Karafuto teichi gyogyo suisan kumiai, Karafuto to gyogyo, pp. 315-16.

93. Suzuki, Karafuto suisan dantai taikan , pp. 293-341.

94. Ibid., p. 297.

95. Taniguchi, Karafuto shokumin seisaku , pp. 345-46.

96. "Dojin gyoba to dojin," Karafuto nichinichi shinbun , 3 September 1910.

97. "Gyofu yatoiire chui," ibid., 30 November 1913.

98. "Furyo no sanjo," ibid., 22 June 1915; "Hibi kenbun," ibid., 19 June 1915.

99. "Kushunnai no gyofu boko jiken," ibid., 9 May 1912; also, "Kushunnai no gyofu domei boko jiken senpo," ibid., 15 May 1912; "Sodo jiken kohan," ibid., 29 June 1912; "Sodo jiken no hanketsu," ibid., 30 June 1912; ''Sodo jiken no hanketsu," ibid., 5 July 1912.

100. "Yatoi gyofu no shingensho," ibid., 11 April 1911.

101. "Karafuto to roryoku mondai," ibid., 21-22 September 1911. For a proposal that the indigenous peoples of Karafuto be put to work as industrial laborers, see Nakame Satoru, Dojin kyoka ron (Tokyo: Iwanami shoten, 1918), pp. 94-108.

102. "Saharin zanryu Kankoku-, Chosen-jin ni Soren no hairyo," Hokkaido shinbun , 27 November 1987. Between sixty and eighty thousand Koreans were taken to Karafuto during World War II; about thirty-six thousand persons of Korean descent (including second- and third-generation Koreans) remain in Sakhalin today: "Zai-Saharin Kankokujin issei: Miyori nai 150-nin, 9-gatsu ni eiju kikoku," Hokkaido shinbun , 21 June 1992.

103. Karafuto cho, Karafuto yoran (1913 ed.), pp. 117-20.

104. Gordon, "The Crowd and Politics in Imperial Japan," p. 147.

105. Gordon, Labor and Imperial Democracy in Prewar Japan , pp. 13-25. Gordon's "imperial democracy" is more commonly known as "Taisho democracy." See his discussion of the terms, pp. 5-10.

106. Lewis, Rioters and Citizens , chap. 2.

107. Ibid., pp. 38-42. Not only did many men from the Toyama coast work in fisheries in Hokkaido, Karafuto, and Soviet territory, but women in Toyama labored as dockworkers, unloading herring meal from the north and loading grain destined for Hokkaido and Karafuto.

108. See Vlastos, Peasant Protests and Uprisings in Tokugawa Japan , pp. 16-18.

109. Herbert P. Bix, Peasant Protest in Japan , 1590-1884 (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1986), pp. 209-14; Scheiner, "The Mindful Peasant"; lrokawa, The Culture of the Meiji Period , pp. 151-95, and Bowen, Rebellion and Democracy in Meiji Japan , pp. 49-69 and passim.

110. Bowen, Rebellion and Democracy in Meiji Japan , p. 103.

111. Tenkai-sei, "Karafuto tai Hakodate," Karafuto nichinichi shinbun , 3 April 1912.