1. See, for example, Briggs 1988, Bauman 1977, and Hymes 1971. For an earlier and broader statement, see Goffman 1974, particularly chap. 10, "Breaking Frame."

2. See Hymes 1981, "Breakthrough into Performance" and "Breakthrough into Performance Revisited."

3. For an overview of these materials, see Reynolds 1989.

4. See Bird 1972; Lord 1974; Reichl 1992.

5. The authoritative role of the first-person utterance has been an enduring feature of Arabic literature from the earliest periods onward, particularly in genres that are close to, or imitate, oral traditions. See Reynolds 1991.

6. Reynolds 1995, chap. 5, "The Interplay of Genres."

7. Taha is an epithet of the prophet Muhammad formed from the two Arabic letters Ta and Ha.

8. See Martin 1989.

9. Ibid., 237.

10. Reynolds 1995, chap. 3, "Poets Inside and Outside the Epic."

11. A remarkable incident from southern Egypt in which a poet was not able to disclaim an offending verse is analyzed in detail in Slyomovics 1987.

12. See Burke 1931.