1. R. Keith Schoppa, "Province and Nation: The Chekiang Provincial Autonomy Movement, 1917-1927," Journal of Asian Studies 36 (1977): 674.

2. The most comprehensive account of various provincial selfgovernment/federalist movements in English remains an article by Jean Chesneaux translated from the French, "The Federalist Movement in China, 1920-3," in Modern China's Search for a Political Form , ed. Jack Gray (London: Oxford University Press, 1969). A good source of information on the principles of these movements, including many primary documents, is Wang Wuwei, Hunan zizhi yundong shi [History of the Hunan self-government movement] (Shanghai: Taidong tushuju, 1920). break

3. Schoppa, 672-74.

4. Hunan shanhou xiehui, 39-40. Duan Qirui sought Tan Yankai's return as civil governor to undermine opposition to the imposition of northern rule in Hunan. Hence Zhang only received an "acting" appointment. Tan's refusal to cooperate left Zhang unchallenged as civil governor.

5. Guomin xinbao , Jan. 20, 1919; Shibao , Apr. 5 and Nov. 16, 1919.

6. Liu Cuochen, 6; Shibao , July 24, 1919.

7. Dagongbao , July 4, 1919.

8. Hunan shanhou xiehui, 380-81.

9. Liu Cuochen, 9-10.

10. Zheng Tingxi, 254; Shibao , Nov. 14 and 26, 1919.

11. Shibao , Oct. 12, 1916, Feb. 17 and Nov. 13, 1917, and Aug. 29, 1918.

12. Shibao , Aug. 2, Sept. 3 and 14, 1917.

13. For example, Zhang appointed the head of his military supplies department as supervisor of a new provincial bank, clearly marking it as "Zhang's bank." See Hunan shanhou xiehui, 170-72. One of the biggest corruption scandals in Hunan during Zhang's tenure concerned a relative of his who headed Hunan's salt administration. Ibid., 186-87.

14. Odoric Wou has shown that while the percentage of local magistrates who had received military training or education remained small, official appointments and promotions increasingly depended on a civil bureaucrat's military connections and record of service to pertinent military commanders. Odoric Y. K. Wou, "The District Magistrate Profession in the Early Republican Period: Occupational Recruitment, Training and Mobility," Modern Asian Studies 8, no. 2 (1974): 239-45.

15. Shibao , July 4, 1920. See Dagongbao , May 31, 1918, and June 1, 1919, for similar examples of central tax revenues withheld by Zhang Jingyao, primarily for troop pay.

16. Hunan shanhou xiehui, 237-38.

17. Ibid., 169-89; Li Cuochen, 3; Zheng Tingxi, 261-65.

16. Hunan shanhou xiehui, 237-38.

17. Ibid., 169-89; Li Cuochen, 3; Zheng Tingxi, 261-65.

18. See, e.g., Ch'i, 150-78; Wou, Militarism , 67-80; Ch'en, Military-Gentry Coalition , 130-38.

19. Guomin xinbao , Feb. 9, 1919. For similar complaints, see Guomin xinbao , Feb. 17, 1919; Shibao , May 4 and Aug. 22, 1919.

20. Dagongbao , Apr. 18 and Nov. 9, 1919; Hunan shanhou xiehui, 253, 301-21.

21. Zheng Tingxi, 257.

22. For example, the Hubei Provincial Assembly strongly protested taxes raised without its approval to fund the Provincial Defense Corps, continue

complaining that the continuing allocation of tax revenues for new troops would mean that "Hubei's provincial culture would steadily degenerate." Shibao , Sept. 28, 1917.

23. Liu Cuochen, 4-5, 15.

24. For a sampling of such cases, see Shibao , Oct. 23, 1916, Jan. 12, 1917, June 30, 1918, Apr. 6, 1919; Dagongbao , May 26 and 27, June 9, 1918.

25. Dagongbao , Dec. 12, 1919.

26. Shibao , Dec. 16, 21, and 24, 1920.

27. Ch'en, Military-Gentry Coalition .

28. Edward A. McCord, "Militia and Local Militarization in Late Qing and Early Republican China: The Case of Hunan," Modern China , 14, no. 2 (Apr. 1988): 177-79.

29. Shibao , Aug. 17, 1918.

30. In November 1917, Wang Jinjing was appointed commanderin-chief of the northern defenses at Yuezhou. In February 1918, he was removed from his 2d Division command for yielding this city to the advancing southern forces, even though his retreat most likely had Wang Zhanyuan's approval. On Wang Zhanyuan's recommendation, he was briefly restored to the 2d Division command in January 1919. Shibao , Jan. 10, 1916; Guomin xinbao , Nov. 14, 1917, Jan. 31, Feb. 6, and Apr. 8, 1918; Hankou xinwenbao , Jan 10, 1919.

31. Guomin xinbao , Nov. 10, 1917; Shibao , Nov. 15, 1917; Zhiyuanlu , 1919, no. 2: lujun guanzuo 27.

32. Guomin xinbao , Oct. 31, 1917; Shibao , Nov. 12, 1917. Previously, in 1913, Sun had advanced from 2d Division battalion commander to 6th Regiment commander. In early 1917, Sun was appointed 3d Brigade commander of the 2d Division, and soon after he was made commander of the Hubei Provincial Defense Corps too. Later, in 1921, Sun became commander of the 18th Division on Wang's recommendation. When Wang left Hubei, Sun succeeded him as 2d Division commander. By the mid 1920s, Sun was a prominent warlord in his own right, with hegemony over five provinces. Zhiyuanlu , 1913, no. 1: lujun guanzuo 5; 1913, no. 2: lujun guanzuo 5. Yang Wenkai, "Sun Chuanfang de yisheng" [The life of Sun Chuanfang], in Tianjin wenshi ziliao xuanji [Collection of Tianjin cultural and historical materials], ed. Zhongguo renmin zhengzhi xieshang huiyi Tianjin shi weiyuanhui wenshi ziliao yanjiu weiyuanhui [Research committee on cultural and historical materials, Tianjin committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference], vol. 2 (Tianjin: Tianjin renmin chubanshe, 1979), 80-83; Shibao , Jan. 29 and June 23, 1917; Shuntian ribao , Mar. 25, 1921.

33. Shibao , Jan. 9, 1916.

34. Shibao , Dec. 31, 1917; Guomin xinbao , Jan. 11 and 17, 1918. break

35. Shibao , Nov. 15, 1917; Guomin xinbao , Nov. 14 and 26, 1917, Nov. 21, 1918. The new commander of the Hubei 2d Mixed Brigade, Nan Yuanchao, had held the position of 2d Division cavalry regiment commander since the early Republic. Zhiyuanlu , 1913, no. 1: lujun guanzuo 5.

36. Guomin xinbao , Mar. 25, 1919.

37. The formation of these two brigades superseded original plans to restore the 9th Division. Zhang Liansheng was given command of the 17th Mixed Brigade, while one of his former regiment commanders, Zhao Ronghua, was placed over the 18th. Guomin xinbao , Jan. 21 and 31, 1918; Shibao , Mar. 1, 1918.

38. Guomin xinbao , Nov. 12, 1918.

39. Guomin xinbao , Apr. 7, 1917; Shibao , June 7, 1917.

40. Guomin xinbao , Nov. 7, 1917; Shibao , Apr. 21, 1918; Fei Zepu, "Wu Guangxin zai Changjiang shangyou de xingbai" [The rise and fall of Wu Guangxin on the upper Yangzi], WZX, 41: 73.

41. Among the pacified bandit leaders associated with Zhang were a pair of brothers, Mao Hong'en and Mao Hongyi. They became brigade commanders through Zhang's patronage. Shibao , July 31 and Aug. 10, 1920.

42. One brother, Zhang Jingtang, was given command of a unit designated the 42d Brigade, later changed to the Hunan 1st Brigade. HJDJ, 374; Ningxiang xianzhi, xinzhi , 1: 10. Another brother, Zhang Jingshun, commanded the "temporary" 12th Brigade, while yet another, Zhang Jingyu, became commander of a specially organized mixed regiment. Zhang Jingyao created a regimental command for his adopted son and brother-in-law, Zhang Jizhong, originally a pacified Shandong bandit. Guomin xinbao , Mar. 26 and Oct. 12, 1918; Dagongbao , Oct. 12, 1918; Xu Hejun, "Guanyu Zhang Jingyao" [Concerning Zhang Jingyao], HWZ, 11: 115.

43. Hunan shanhou xiehui, 379.

44. Tao Juyin, Beiyang junfa , 4: 172; HJDJ, 379.

45. The designation of Zhu Zehuang's brigade changed several times from the 17th Brigade, to the 1st Brigade, to the 5th Mixed Brigade. Dagongbao , May 21, June 8 and 26, Oct. 11, 26, and 28, 1918.

46. Hunan shanhou xiehui, 89; Guomin xinbao , Apr. 6 and 12, 1918; Dagongbao , May 22, 1918.

47. Dagongbao , June 8 and 10, Aug. 11, and Dec. 8, 1918.

48. These forces included the Jiangsu 6th Mixed Brigade led by Zhang Zongchang (a future Shandong military governor), the Jiangxi 23d Brigade, the Shandong 1st Division, an assortment of Anhui battalions (including some led by a future Anhui military governor, Ma Lianjia), and finally a large Fengtian army contingent (including commanders such as Sun Liechen, soon to become military governor continue

of Heilongjiang, and Zhang Jinghui, later military governor of Chahar). Tao Juyin, Beiyang junfa , 4: 105; Dagongbao , June 20 and 24, 1918; Hunan shanhou xiehui, 33, 59-60; Ch'i, 244-45.

49. Among the seven brigade commanders serving under Wu at this time were four future military governors: Zhang Fulai, Wang Chengbin, Yan Xiangwen, and Xiao Yaonan. Hunan shanhou xiehui, 59-60; Dagongbao , June 20, 1918; Tao Juyin, Beiyang junfa , 4: 105, 172; Fei Zepu, 72; Ch'i, 244-45. Sources differ on the exact number of Zhili mixed brigades that accompanied Wu Peifu to Hunan. However, Wu's own battlefield reports list four of these brigades in action with him. In mid 1918, the 4th Mixed Brigade (under Cao Ying) returned north. See Hunan shanhou xiehui, 34; Dagongbao , July 10, 1918.

50. Dagongbao , June 16 and Nov. 27, 1918; Hunan shanhou xiehui, 60, 88.

51. Wang Zhanyuan reportedly met all the 2d Division's troop pay with funds from the Hubei treasury, but only paid a portion of the expenses of other "national" forces, expecting them to seek assistance from the central government. Shibao , Sept. 5, 1919. Wang also paid the 18th Division, which he stationed at Yichang to watch over Wu Guangxin, but left Wu to appeal to the central government for his payroll. Shibao , Nov. 2, 1919.

52. Hunan shanhou xiehui, 238.

53. Dagongbao , Aug. 18 and 23, 1919.

54. Dagongbao , June 9 and Aug. 24, 1918, July 3 and Sept. 4, 1919.

55. Guomin xinbao , Feb. 13, 1914; Shibao , July 24, 1919.

56. See, e.g., Dagongbao , June 17 and 27, 1918.

57. Dagongbao , July 4, 1919.

58. Sheridan, Chinese Warlord , 90-96.

59. A good example of the demands placed on local officials by passing military commanders can be found in a 1924 report from the magistrate of Hubei's Zhijiang county. The magistrate excused his failure to prevent a local prison break by explaining that his energies had been completely absorbed by his efforts to provide services for a passing regiment commander, including the supply of military provisions, the recruitment of three hundred bearers, and even the special installation of a military telephone. Hubei gongbao , Dec. 30, 1924.

60. Wou, "District Magistrate," 243-44.

61. Guomin xinbao , Oct. 30, 1918; Dagongbao , Oct. 5 and Nov. 19, 1918.

62. Liu Ying was a Tongmenghui and Forward Together Society activist who had organized a local revolutionary force in Hubei in 1911. After Yuan's dissolution of the National Assembly, Liu partici- soft

pated in a number of revolutionary plots in Hubei. After joining the Hubei independence movement, Liu led a small force under Wang Anlan's command. He Juefei, 1: 193-95; Guomin xinbao , Jan. 4 and 18, Apr. 18, 1918. In November 1917, Cai Jimin was appointed commander-in-chief of the Hubei army by Sun Yat-sen, and he subsequently led a number of unsuccessful uprisings in eastern Hubei. After this, Cai was invited to southwestern Hubei to take command of a number of forces raised by lesser revolutionary leaders. He Juefei, 1: 274; Guomin xinbao , Jan. 24 and 26, Apr. 4, 1918. Tang Keming worked actively to encourage Li Tiancai's and Shi Xingchuan's declarations of independence and then raised his own force of several thousand men in southwestern Hubei. Shibao , Dec. 13, 1917, Feb. 20, 1918; Guomin xinbao , Feb. 16 and Oct. 30, 1918. Wang Anlan raised several thousand men in northern Hubei in December 1917 and then retreated with this substantial force to southwestern Hubei. Shibao , Dec. 14 and 31, 1917; Guomin xinbao , Jan. 1 and Apr. 18, 1918. Arriving in western Hubei in early 1918 to aid in efforts to unify the Hubei independent forces, Tang Xizhi was given the title of "pacification commissioner" ( anfushi ) and assumed command over a small force of several battalions. Guomin xinbao , Apr. 18, May 27, and Oct. 30, 1918. Ji Yulin arrived in Hubei soon after Li's and Shi's declarations of independence and raised troops along the Han River. Guomin xinbao , Jan. 18, 1918.

63. A special regiment of over eight hundred men was even organized under Shi Xingchuan composed entirely of Japanese or Boading military school graduates and former middle- or lower-level officers. Guomin xinbao , Jan. 11, 1918.

64. Guomin xinbao , Jan. 16 and 18, 1918.

65. Guomin xinbao , Apr. 18, Oct. 30 and 31, Nov. 4 and 14, 1918; Shibao , Sept. 13, 1918, Feb. 2, 1920.

66. Dagongbao , Oct. 3, 1919.

67. Guomin xinbao , Apr. 30, 1918; Shibao , Apr. 19, 1919, Jan. 11,1920.

68. Liu Yunshi, "Ji minchu Exi san dahai: Tufei, tuanfa yu yapian" [Remembering the three great evils of early Republican West Hubei: Bandits, militia bosses, and opium.] Hubei wenxian 64 (July 10, 1982): 67.

69. Guomin xinbao , Apr. 18, 1918.

70. Among these commanders-in-chief were Bo Wenwei, the former Guomindang military governor of Anhui, and Lan Tianwei, a Hubei military officer who had organized a revolutionary plot inside the Beiyang Army in 1911. Guomin xinbao , Nov. 14, 1918; Shibao , Sept. 13, 1918, Feb. 11 and Apr. 19, 1919, Apr. 21 and May 25, 1920; Liu Yunshi, "Bo Wenwei jiangjun yu Exi jingguojun" [General continue

Bo Wenwei and West Hubei's National Pacification Army], Hubei wenxian , 70 (Jan. 10, 1984): 4-7.

71. Guomin xinbao , Mar. 11 and 20, 1919; Shibao , May 8, 1919; Liu Yunshi, "Zhang Taiyan yu Exi jingguojun jingwei" [Main points concerning Zhang Taiyan and the West Hubei National Pacification Army], Hubei wenxian , 63 (Apr. 10, 1982): 6-7.

72. Guomin xinbao , Apr. 18, 1918; Shibao , Apr. 19, 1919, Sept. 13, 1918, Apr. 21, 1920.

73. Guomin xinbao , Feb. 28, 1919; Shibao , Dec. 3, 1919; He Juefei, 1: 274-77. The footnotes in the last source summarize the evidence concerning Tang's possible complicity in Cai's death.

74. Guomin xinbao , Mar. 20, 1919; Shibao , May 8, Nov. 24, Dec. 3 and 8, 1919; Hankou xinwenbao , Aug. 9, 1919.

75. With this defeat, Li retired to Yunnan. Gao Guanghan, 14-15; Shibao , Nov. 8, 15, and 22, 1920.

76. Huazi ribao [Chinese Daily], Jan. 5, 1921; Shuntian ribao , Jan. 13, 17, 26, and 31, 1921.

77. Yang Siyi, 119; Guomin xinbao , Nov. 3, 1917.

78. Qiu Ao, "Liu Jianfan," 82-83.

79. HJDJ, 367-68.

80. Huang Yi'ou, "Liu Jianfan," 182; Qiu Ao, "Liu Jianfan," 86; HJDJ, 371-72.

81. Zhang Xueji raised an anti-Yuan force in West Hunan with Tian Yingzhao's assistance during the Anti-Monarchical War. After this conflict, he had received an appointment as circuit intendant, and most of his troops were disbanded. Zhang raised a new army to join the struggle against Fu Liangzuo. Dai Jitao, 85; Dagongbao , Mar. 19, 1917; Shibao , Sept. 17, 1916, Oct. 20, 1917; Yang Siyi, 119. For the most detailed account of the West Hunan forces during the NorthSouth War, see Yang Siyi, 118-30.

82. See, e.g., Dagongbao , Oct. 27, Nov. 1 and 18, 1917.

83. Dagongbao , June 1 and 21, Sept. 12, 1918.

84. Yang Siyi, 124-25; Dagongbao , Sept. 24, Dec. 3 and 12, 1918, Dec. 4, 1919.

85. Yang Siyi, 121-22, 124; Guomin xinbao , Jan. 20 and Mar. 6, 1918.

86. Yang Siyi, 126; Dagongbao , Dec. 4, 1919.

87. Dagongbao , Nov. 9, 1918. For other examples, see Dagongbao , Oct. 5, 1918, Jan 4, 1919.

88. Yang Siyi, 129; Xiao Shipeng, "Liao Xiangyun Yanxi qishi jilue" [A brief account of Liao Xiangyun's Yanxi revolt], HWZ, 8: 132-33.

89. Huang Yi'ou, "Liu Jianfan," 182; Guomin xinbao , Jan. 26, continue

1918; Hankou Zhongxi bao [The Hankou Chinese-Western News], Feb. 1, 1918.

90. Tao Juyin, "Ji Tan Yankai," 102; Qiu Ao, "'Liu Jianfan Lingling duli qianhou' xushu" [A sequel to "The beginning and end of Liu Jianfan's independence at Lingling"], WZX, 30: 129-31; Yang Shiji, 252.

91. Yang Siyl, 126-27; Qiu Ao, "Liu Jianfan . . . xushu," 131-32.

92. Cheng told one mediator, "If you have Tan, you can't have me; if you have me, you can't have Tan." In a private conversation about Cheng with the same person, Tan hinted, "The east wind always seeks to overpower the west, and the west wind the east." Zhong Boyi, section 11.

93. Tao Juyin, "Ji Tan Yankai," 102; Xiao Zhongqi, "Tan Yankai lian Wu (Peifu) qu Zhang (Jingyao) de linzhao" [Odd scraps on Tan Yankai's unification with Wu Peifu to oust Zhang Jingyao], HWZ, 8: 116; Dagongbao , July 5, 6, 8, and 14, 1919.

94. Yang Siyi, 126; Zhong Boyi, section 11.

95. Hunan shanhou xiehui, 101-3.

96. Zuo Linfen, "Xiangren qu Fu (Liangzuo), Zhang (Jingyao) huiyi" [Memoir of the Hunan ouster of Fu (Liangzuo) and Zhang (Jingyao)], HWZ, 8: 111. Hunan shanhou xiehui, Xiangzai jilue , is an example of the anti-Zhang materials produced by the Hunan Rehabilitation Association.

97. For a more detailed description of the May Fourth Movement in Hunan, see McDonald, Urban Origins , 95-113. An important collection of documents on the May 4th Movement in Hunan is to be found in Wusi shiqi Hunan renmin geming douzheng shiliao xuanbian [Collection of historical materials on the revolutionary struggle of the Hunan people in the May Fourth period], ed. Hunan sheng zhexue shehui kexue yanjiusuo xiandaishi yanjiushi [Contemporary history research room of the Hunan Provincial Philosophy-Social Science Research Institute] (Changsha: Hunan renmin chubanshe, 1979).

98. HJDJ, 405-7; Jiang Zhuru, "Hunan xuesheng de fanri qu Zhang douzheng" [The Hunan student anti-Japanese oust-Zhang struggle], HWZ, 11: 26-29; Tang Yaozhang, "Hunan xuejie quZhang yundong qianhou" [Before and after the Hunan student oustZhang movement], HWZ, 11: 97-102; HLZ, 1959, no. 2: 44-46.

99. Zuo Linfen, 111.

100. Jing Siyou, 137; Qiu Ao, "Liu Jianfan . . . xushu," 132-33; Xiao Zhongqi, "Tan Yankai," 115-16.

101. Xie Benshu, 68-71.

102. Xiao Zhongqi, "Tan Yankai," 117; Jing Siyou, 138.

103. Wang Wuwei, 18-22; Huang Yi'ou, "Tan Yankai beipo continue

xiatai he Li Zhonglin deng beisha de huiyi" [Memoir of the forced retirement of Tan Yankai and the killing of Li Zhonglin, etc.], HWZ, 4: 5; Tao Juyin, "Ji Tan Yankai," 104; HJDJ, 411-14.

104. Huang Yi'ou, "Tan Yankai," 3-4; Tao Juyin, "Ji Tan Yankai," 104-5; Shibao , Aug. 6 and 16, Sept. 20 and 28, 1920.

105. Qiu Ao, "Liu Jianfan . . . xushu," 140.

106. Jing Siyou, 138-39; Tao Juyin, "Ji Tan Yankai," 104.

107. Qiu Ao, "Liu Jianfan . . . xushu," 141; Tao Juyin, "Ji Tan Yankai," 105-7.

108. Liu Cuochen, 2, 4.

109. A useful document collection on the May Fourth Movement in Hubei is Wusi yundong zai Wuhan shiliao xuanji [Collection of historical materials on the May Fourth Movement in Wuhan], ed. Zhang Yinghui and Kong Xiangzheng (Wuhan: Hubei renmin chubanshe, 1981).

110. Liu Cuochen, 9; Shibao , Sept. 1, 1920. The highest post Sun held before this was as a circuit intendant in Hubei, a post that he had also received as a result of Wang's patronage.

111. Liu Cuochen, 9, 13; USDS 893.00/3675 (Huston, Nov. 18, 1920); Shibao , Sept. 1, 4, 17, 19, and 22, 1920.

112. Liu Cuochen, 10; USDS 893.00/3675 (Huston, Nov. 18, 1920); Shibao , Sept. 22 and 25, Oct. 2, Nov. 16, 1920.

113. Liu Cuochen, 10-11. According to one account, Wang received some pressure from Wu Peifu to accept Xia and also feared contacts between Xia's supporters and the West Hubei independent army. Shibao , Sept. 23, 1920.

114. Shibao , Nov. 24, 1920.

115. Liu Cuochen, 11-12; Shibao , Nov. 28 and 30, 1920.

116. Liu Cuochen, 11, 15-16, 40; Shuntian ribao , Jan. 23, 1921.

117. Liu Cheng'en was a native of Xiangyang, Hubei, and a graduate of the Beiyang Military Academy. Although he was a military man, during the 1911 Revolution he served for a time as Guangxi's civil governor. Liu Cuochen, 53-57; USDS 893.00/3840 (Huston, Mar. 9, 1921); Shuntian ribao , Mar. 8, 9, and 14, Apr. 10, 1921.

118. Liu Cuochen, 22-39, 43-45, 56-57; USDS 893.00/3835 (Huston, Mar. 18, 1921).

119. Yang Wenkai, "Wo zai Wang Zhanyuan muxia," 97; Liu Cuochen, 74-84, 92-93; Shuntian ribao , June 11 and 15, 1921.

120. Liu Cuochen, 94, 101-2, 123; Shuntian ribao , June 18 and 21, July 17, 1921.

121. Liu Cuochen, 116-42; Shuntian ribao , June 15, 22, and 30, 1921; USDS 893.00/3981 (Huston, June 22, 1921).

122. Fei Zepu, 76-77; Shibao , July 21 and 27, 1920.

123. Liu Cuochen, 154-55. break

124. Zhang Lianfen, 105-6; Hankou xinwenbao , June 21 and 22, 1921.

125. Shuntian ribao , Aug. 4, 1921; USDS 893.00/4028 (Adams, July 28, 1921); Liu Cuochen, 147-52.

126. A well-documented contemporary account of this war can be found in Xiangjun yuan-E zhanshi [History of the Hunan army's AidHubei War] (n.p., 1921).

127. Zhang Lianfen, 106-12; Yang Wenkai, "Wo zai Wang Zhanyuan muxia," 98; Liu Cuochen, 165-73; Shuntian ribao , Aug. 3 and 10, 1921.

128. Zhang Lianfen, 107.

129. Xiangjun , 65; Shuntian ribao , Aug. 11, 1921.