1. The World Bank and the United Nations Development Programme, Africa's Adjustment and Growth in the 1980s (Washington, D.C.: The World Bank, 1989).

2. E.g., Michael F. Lofchie, The Policy Factor: Agricultural Performance in Kenya and Tanzania (Boulder: L. Rienner, 1989).

3. Max Weber, Economy and Society , ed. Guenther Roth and Claus Wittich, vol. 1 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1978), pp. 56, 65.

4. This conception of legitimacy as being the consent of other power holders, rather than of the governed, is derived from Arthur Stinchcombe, Constructing Social Theories (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1968), pp. 150-51.

5. Theda Skocpol, State and Social Revolutions (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979), pp. 25-32.

6. The dictionary gives as one of the definitions of the state: ''a politically organized body of people usually occupying a definite territory; especially one that is sovereign." Webster's Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary (Springfield, Mass.: Merriam-Webster, 1984). See also Robert H. Jackson and Carl G. Rosberg, "Why Africa's Weak States Persist: The Empirical and Juridical in Statehood," World Politics 35, no. 1 (October 1982): 1-24.

7. Webster's Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary , p. 529.

8. This is not to say that all contemporary users of the term "state" use it in the broad institutional sense that is generally accepted. For example, Nordlinger restricts it to authoritative decision makers and thereby makes it much closer to the narrower definition of government. Most of those currently writing about the state use it in the way that Skocpol does. Eric Nordlinger, On the Autonomy of the Democratic State (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981), p. 11; Peter B. Evans, Dietrich Rueschemeyer, and Theda Skocpol, Bringing the State Back In (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985).

9. Alfred Stepan, The State and Society: Peru in Comparative Perspective (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978), pp. 3-21.

10. Stephen Krasner, "Approaches to the State: Alternative Conceptions and Historical Dynamics," Comparative Politics (January 1984): 223-45.

11. James G. March and Johan P. Olsen, "The New Institutionalism: Organizational Factors in Political Life," American Political Science Review 78, no. 3 (September 1984): 745.

12. Alan B. Amey and David K. Leonard, "Public Policy, Class and Inequality in Kenya and Tanzania," Africa Today 26, no. 4 (1979): 37-38.

13. Robert H. Bates, Essays on the Political Economy of Rural Africa (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1983), p. 113; Rwekaza Mukandala, The Political Economy of Parastatal Enterprise in Tanzania and Botswana (Ph.D. diss., Department of Political Science, University of California, Berkeley, 1988); Guy C. Z. Mhone, "Agriculture and Food Policy in Malawi: A Review," in The State and Agriculture in Africa , ed. T. Mkandawire and N. Bourename (London: CODESRIA Book Series, 1987).

14. Mancur Olson, The Logic of Collective Action (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1965). break

15. Dietrich Rueschemeyer and Peter B. Evans, "The State and Economic Transformation," in Bringing the State Back In , ed. Evans, Rueschemeyer, and Skocpol, p. 61.

16. Elinor Ostrom, "Issues of Definition and Theory: Some Conclusions and Hypotheses," in Proceedings of the Conference on Common Property Resource Management , prepared by the Panel on Common Property Resource Management, Board on Science and Technology for International Development, National Research Council (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1986), pp. 604-7.

17. David Gould, Bureaucratic Corruption in the Third World: The Administration of Underdevelopment in Zaire (New York: Pergamon-Maxwell, 1980).

18. Bates, Political Economy of Rural Africa , p. 129.

19. Crawford Young and Thomas Turner, The Rise and Decline of the Zairian State (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1985), p. 45.

20. Richard A. Joseph, Democracy and Prebendal Politics in Nigeria: The Rise and Fall of the Second Republic (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), pp. 57, 87.

21. Mancur Olson, The Rise and Decline of Nations: Economic Growth, Stagflation and Social Rigidities (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982), p. 74.

22. Robert Jackson and Carl Rosberg, Personal Rule in Black Africa: Prince, Autocrat, Prophet, Tyrant (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1982).

23. Robert Bates, Markets and States in Tropical Africa (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1981); Joseph, Democracy and Prebendal Politics in Nigeria .

24. Rueschemeyer and Evans, "The State and Economic Transformation," p. 61.

25. Ibid., pp. 50-53.

24. Rueschemeyer and Evans, "The State and Economic Transformation," p. 61.

25. Ibid., pp. 50-53.

26. Anthony Downs, Inside Bureaucracy (Boston: Little, Brown, 1967), pp. 84, 93-95.

27. Kenneth Meier and Lloyd Nigro, "Representative Bureaucracy and Political Preferences," Public Administration Review 36, no. 4 (1976): 458-69.

28. Joseph, Democracy and Prebendal Politics in Nigeria , p. 57.

29. James A. Armstrong, The European Administrative Elite (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1973), chaps. 6 and 7; Rupert Wilkinson, Gentlemanly Power: British Leadership and the Public School Tradition (London: Oxford University Press, 1964).

30. David Leonard, Reaching the Peasant Farmer (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977), pp. 200-202.

31. Silas Ita, "The Changing Role Expectations of the Chiefs in Mbere Division: 1900-1971," (B.A. diss., Department of Government, University of Nairobi, 1972).

32. Colin Leys, "Administrative Training and Development in Kenya," in Administrative Training and Development , ed. B. Schaffer (New York: Praeger, 1974), pp. 161-210.

33. Leonard White, The Jacksonians: A Study in Administrative History: 1829-1861 (New York: Macmillan, 1954), pp. 16, 349, 352-53, 357. break

34. Robert Daland, Exploring Brazilian Bureaucracy: Performance and Pathology (Washington, D.C.: University Press of America, 1981).

35. Wolfram Fischer and Peter Lundgreen, "The Recruitment and Training of Administrative and Technical Personnel," in The Formation of National States in Western Europe , ed. Charles Tilly (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975), pp. 527-43.

36. Armstrong, European Administrative Elite , chap. 5.

37. Leonard, Reaching the Peasant Farmer , chap. 12.

38. Arthur L. Stinchcombe, "Social Structure and Organizations," in Handbook of Organizations , ed. J. G. March (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1965), pp. 153-69.

39. Brian Chapman, The Prefects and Provincial France (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1955), pp. 32-43.

40. White, The Jacksonians , pp. 327-29, 348-49.

41. Gary Bonham, "Bureaucratic Modernizers and Traditional Constraints: Higher Officials and the Landed Nobility in Wilhelmine Germany, 1890-1914" (Ph.D. diss., Department of Political Science, University of California, Berkeley, 1985), pp. 371-99.

42. Arturo Israel, Institutional Development (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987).

43. These observations owe much to Stephen Peterson.

44. Herbert Jacob, German Administration Since Bismark: Central Authority Versus Local Autonomy (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1963), pp. 108-51.

45. Jeremy R. Azrael, Managerial Power and Soviet Politics (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1966), pp. 28-64.

46. Franz Schurmann, Ideology and Organization in Communist China , 2d ed. (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1968), pp. 220-365, 574-75, 582-92.

47. Richard L. Cole and David A. Caputo, "Presidential Control of the Senior Civil Service: Assessing the Strategies of the Nixon Years," American Political Science Review 73, no. 2 (June 1979): 399-413.

48. Peter Woll, American Bureaucracy , 2d ed. (New York: W. W. Norton, 1977).

49. Ezra N. Suleiman, Politics, Power, and Bureaucracy in France: The Administrative Elite (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1974), pp. 361, 372.

50. Alfred A. Diamant, "The French Administrative System: The Republic Passes But the Administration Remains," in Toward the Comparative Study of Public Administration , ed. W. J. Siffin (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1957), and "Tradition and Innovation in French Administration," Comparative Political Studies 1, no. 2 (1968).

51. John D. Montgomery, "Bureaucratic Politics in Southern Africa," Public Administration Review 46, no. 5 (1986): 411-12.

52. Joel Aberbach, Robert Putnam, and Bert Rockman, Bureaucrats and Politicians in Western Democracies (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981), pp. 9-16, 238-62.

53. Good examples can be found in the heritage of police operating procedures in Europe and the unanticipated manner in which the British rejection of continue

administrative law courts actually resulted in less judicial protection for English citizens against administrative abuse. David H. Bayley, "The Police and Political Development in Europe," in The Formation of National States in Western Europe , ed. Charles Tilly, pp. 328-79; Brian Chapman, The Profession of Government (London: Unwin University Books, 1959), pp. 192-96.

54. Joel S. Migdal, Strong Societies and Weak States (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988), p. 4.

55. Michael Lofchie, Policy Makes a Difference , chap. 3; Migdal, Strong Societies and Weak States , pp. 18-19, 264.

56. Goran Hyden, No Shortcuts to Progress: African Development Management in Perspective (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1983), chaps. 1-3.

57. Migdal, Strong Societies and Weak States , pp. 264-65.

58. Frederick C. Mosher, Democracy and the Public Service (New York: Oxford University Press, 1968), pp. 209-16.

59. This factor is greatly stressed by John Powelson, Institutions of Economic Growth (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1972).

60. Chalmers A. Johnson, MITI and the Japanese Miracle: The Growth of Industrial Policy: 1925-1975 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1982).

61. Bruce Johnston and William Clark, Redesigning Rural Development (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982).

62. I owe this hypothesis to Ernest Wilson of the University of Michigan.

63. White, The Jacksonians , pp. 16, 349, 352-53, 357; Daland, Exploring Brazilian Bureaucracy .

64. Fischer and Lundgreen, "Recruitment and Training," pp. 527-43.