1. Interview with JJ. The exhibition of Lin Fengmian's works took place in 1963. See Laing, Winking Owl , pp. 51-52.

2. Parris Chang, Power and Policy in China , 2d ed. (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1978), p. 104.

3. Ibid., pp. 107-108, 110-121.

4. Ibid., pp. 122-130.

5. Ibid., pp. 125-129, 147-148.

6. Ibid., pp. 145-146.

7. Ibid., p. 108.

8. Among other representatives were listed Wang Geyi (1896-1988?) and Feng Zikai (1898-1975), both from the Shanghai Chinese Painting Institute, and Zhang Jinghu (1892-1967), a folk artist at the Beijing Crafts Research Institute who specialized in making figures out of colored dough.

9. "Xiangying Zhou Enlai zongli de haozhao, wei tigao yishu ziliang er nuli" (Respond to Premier Zhou Enlai's call, work to raise artistic standards), by Members of the Political Consultative Committee Wang Geyi, Wang Zhaowen, Feng Zikai, Ye Qianyu, Zhang Jinghu, Fu Baoshi, and Jiang Zhaohe, MS 1959, no. 5, p. 3.

10. Zhou Enlai, "Zai wenyi gongzuo zuotanhui he gushipian chuangzuo huiyi shang de jianghua" (Speeches at the Literature and Art Conference and Fictional Film Creation Meeting, June 19, 1961), reprinted from Wenyibao , 1979, no. 2, in Zhou Enlai yu wenyi (Zhou Enlai and literature and art), vol. 1 (Beijing: Zhongguo shehui kexue chubanshe, 1980), p. 10.

11. Zhou Enlai, "Guanyu wenhua yishu gongzuo liangtiaotui zoulu de wenti" (On the question of cultural and arts work walking with two legs) (May 3, 1959), in Zhou Enlai yu wenyi , pp. 5-6.

12. Preparation for the national exhibition, scheduled for October 1, 1959, was announced at a CAA meeting on February 14. See MS 1958, no. 3, p. 41.

13. For discussion of some aspects of this exhibition, see Laing, Winking Owl , pp. 40-41.

14. Zhou Enlai, "Zai wenyi gongzuo zuotanhui," pp. 9-31. Arnold Chang discusses this speech at length in Painting in the People's Republic , pp. 17-21.

15. Some of Zhou's points appear also in the Eight Articles on Literature and Art, which were then in draft form; see Byung-joon Ahn, Chinese Politics and the Cultural Revolution: Dynamics of Policy Processes (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1976), pp. 60-61.

16. Zhou Enlai, ''Zai wenyi gongzuo zuotanhui," p. 15.

17. An aborted attempt to rebut critics of the Ling'nan school and revive it appeared in the August 1957 issue of Meishu . With the acceleration of the Anti-Rightist campaign, the school sank back into obscurity. See Huang Duwei, "Cong Hua'nan meizhan kan Ling'nan huapai" (A look at the Lingnan school in the South China Art Exhibition), MS 1957, no. 8, p. 44. A prominent historian of the school recalls that Kang Sheng called Guan Shanyue to Beijing in 1962 to discuss the need to reestablish the school, but subsequent events proved Kang's gesture to be insincere; interview with BH.

18. Zhou, "Zai wenyi gongzuo zuotanhui," p. 21.

19. Ahn, Chinese Politics and the Cultural Revolution , p. 62; Liushinian , p. 201.

20. Ahn, Chinese Politics and the Cultural Revolution , pp. 53-55.

21. Ibid., p. 61.

22. Ibid.; Liushinian , p. 201.

23. Ahn, Chinese Politics and the Cultural Revolution , p. 61.

24. JFNB, pp. 324-325; and interview with YA.

25. "Jiang Feng fandang jituan de liangge gugan—Yang Jiao, Zhang Shaofei" (Two mainstays of the Jiang Feng antiparty clique—Yang Jiao and Zhang Shaofei), MS 1957, no. 10, pp. 37-38. Zhang's best-known work is Read a Thousand Characters , a 1944 literacy poster in the new nianhua style. See Zhongguo xinxing banhua wushinian xuanji, 1931-1981 (Selections of modern prints of China in the fifty years from 1931 to 1981) (Shanghai: Shanghai People's Art Press, 1981), shang , no. 105.

26. "Yao cong zhege shili zhong xiqu jiaoxun" (We must learn a lesson from this case), MS 1958, no. 1, pp. 8-10.

27. Interviews with AA, V, and P.

28. "Yige you yiyi de jiaoxue zhanlan" (A meaningful education exhibition), MS 1958, no. 5, pp. 9-10.

29. Ibid. Interview with JJ. We will discuss Xu Kuang later in the chapter. Sun Kexiang, later known as Sun Ke, became editor of Zhongguohua in the 1980s.

30. "Ba xin jiaogei dang, ba yishu jiaogei renmin hongtou zhuanshen" (Give your heart to the party, your art to the people, be completely red and thoroughly expert), MS 1958, no. 5, pp. 11-12.

31. Wang, Zhao, and Zhao, "Zhongyang meishu xueyuan lishi, fulu," p. 102.

32. "Ba hongqi cha zai jiaoxueshang, ba xuexiao ban dao gongsheli" (Plant the red flags in education, move schools to the commune), MS 1958, no. 10, p. 14.

33. The following information is taken from a brochure about the Guangzhou Academy of Fine Arts entitled Guangzhou meishu xueyuan (n.p., n.d.).

34. At its founding in 1946, the academy was named Northeast Lu Xun Academy of Literature and Arts ( Dongbei Lu Xun wenyi xueyuan ), a name that suggests it was a branch of the Yan'an school, but in 1953 it was renamed the Northeast Art Academy ( Dongbei meizhuan ).

35. Wang, Zhao, and Zhao, "Zhongyang meishu xueyuan lishi, fulu," p. 102. Most of the artists and researchers were reassigned to the Beijing Chinese Painting Institute or to the CAFA art history department, leaving only a skeletal staff. Interview with Z.

36. Wang, Zhao, and Zhao, "Zhongyang meishu xueyuan lishi, fulu," p. 102.

37. "Beijing meishujia huoyue zai shisanling shuiku gongdi" (Beijing artists are active at the Ming Tombs Reservoir worksite), MS 1958, no. 6, p. 3.

38. Qi Su, "Meishujia he meishupin zai shisanling shuiku gongdi" (Artists and art workers at the Ming Tombs Reservoir worksite), MS 1958, no. 6, pp. 4-5.

39. MS 1958, no. 9, frontispiece.

40. "Zhongyang meishu xueyuan jianshi," p. 22.

41. Ibid.

42. Ai Zhongxin, "Jiaoxue zhaji—zhongyang meishu xueyuan youhuaxi zai Shijingshan Moshikoucun shidian jiaoxue zhong de yixie tihui" (Notes on teaching—the CAFA oil painting department test site at Moshikou village, Shijingshan), Meishu yanjiu , 1960, no. 1, pp. 3-7.

43. Interview with HH.

44. "Meishu jiaoyu lai yige dayuejin" (Art education gets a great leap forward), MS 1958, no. 3, p. 7.

45. Interview with IH, who claimed that all the students were worker, peasant, and soldier children; and EA, who was admitted by recommendation from the middle school. It has not been possible to obtain official enrollment figures to verify statistics supplied by Zhou, but they are plausible. Biographical information supplied by artists in Xi'an indicates that such policies may also have been in effect at regional art colleges.

46. "Zhongyang meishu xueyuan jianshi," p. 22.

47. Announcement in Meishu yanjiu , 1959, no. 2, p. 109.

48. Interview with IH.

49. Several students who went to Yunnan inform us that they went voluntarily, convinced that it was a beautiful place to live and work, but when they arrived were not given the jobs they had been promised. Artists who were sent to the northeast or northwest, by contrast, considered their assignments a form of persecution.

50. Many other organizations that produced propaganda were similarly hard hit. Liu Binyan claims that People's Daily , for example, had an extremely high proportion of rightists (lecture, Ann Arbor, 1990).

51. Interviews with HH and ML. MN recalls that party members were particularly affected by such movements, but that nonparty members passed their time more peacefully.

52. "Lu Xun meishu xueyuan zai buduan yuejin" (The Lu Xun Academy of Arts ceaselessly leaps forward), MS 1960, no. 7, pp. 45-47.

53. Sun Cixi, " Dangdai yingxiong de gousi he goutu" (The idea and composition of Contemporary heroes), MS 1960 (Oct.-Nov.): 38-41.

54. It also appeared on the cover of China Reconstructs , August 1960.

55. Sulian meishujia zuopin zhanlanhui—youhua, diaosu, banhua (Exhibition of Soviet artists' works—oils, sculpture, prints) (Beijing: Zhonghua renmin gongheguo duiwai wenhua lianluo weiyuanhui, n.d. [1957]), n.p.

56. Earlier portraits of Mao were known to the young artists. The most notable of these was Luo Gongliu's 1951 Speaking at the Rectification Movement Meeting , which was painted for the Museum of Revolutionary History. For a reproduction, see Gaoju Maozhuxi de weida qizhi shengli qianjin, meishu zuopin xuan (Victoriously advance raising high the great banner of Chairman Mao, selected artworks) (Beijing: People's Art Press, 1977), n.p. Luo's image was one of the first in which Mao is pictured in profile with his arm outstretched. Ellen Laing has associated this convention, which was widely emulated by subsequent Chinese artists, with the iconography of Lenin; see Winking Owl , pp. 65-66.

57. Zhu Jinlou informed us that plans to implement such a program had been discussed at Hangzhou in 1956, but were interrupted by the Anti-Rightist campaign; interview, Hangzhou, 1990.

58. This system was not adopted by the academies in Guangzhou or Sichuan; interview with UU.

59. Other studios in Shanghai were run by Meng Guang and Ren Weiyin, a professor who returned to Shanghai from the Lu Xun Academy in Shenyang; interviews with MO, MQ, and AL.

60. Chinese students at the Repin Art Academy were assigned to studios in their third year. Of the three painters who matriculated in 1954, for example, Quan Shanshi and Xiao Feng were assigned to one professor's studio, Lin Gang to another.

61. This studio was set up under direction of the Japanese-trained Wang Shikuo, who withdrew in order to complete his monumental drawing Bloody Clothes for the Museum of Revolutionary History.

62. The following analysis is taken from Ahn, Chinese Politics and the Cultural Revolution , pp. 62-64.

63. ''Zhongyang meishu xueyuan jianshi," p. 25. One of Xu's few surviving works, painted in 1926, is reproduced in Tao Yongbai (ed.), Zhongguo youhua , pl. 11.

64. Ai Zhongxin, "Huajia Dong Xiwen de chuangzuo daolu he yishu suyang" (The creativity and artistic accomplishments of the painter Dong Xiwen), Meishu yanjiu , 1979, no. 1, p. 58.

65. The date has not been published, but all printmaking students we interviewed reported entering their studios in this year.

66. One version of his forty-eight knife strokes is reproduced in Chen Yingde, Haiwai kan dalu yishu (A look at mainland art from overseas) (Taibei: Yishujia chubanshe, 1987), pp. 247-248.

67. Interviews with HH and JJ.

68. Her classmate ML described the drawing program in similar terms.

69. Interview with EA.

70. Yang Mingsheng (ed.), Zhongguo xiandai huajia zhuan, shang , p. 165. A number of different versions of Li Kuchan's unhappy career are in circulation. One, recounted by the artist to Joan Lebold Cohen and recorded in New Chinese Painting , p. 20, attributes his job placement to a visiting American. Others blame his problems on Jiang Feng's policies toward guohua . Jiang Feng's defenders believe that some of the harsh treatment Li is said to have suffered was a normal part of his responsibilities as a faculty member, including taking his turn to buy movie tickets for the students.

71. Interview with JJ.

72. Interviews with HH and AA.

73. The students included Wang Huaiqing, Huang Guanyu, Hu Yongkai, Fu Jingshan, and Zhang Hongtu. Teachers were young, and included Lu Chen, Sun Zixi, Du Jian, Zhao Youping, and Wang Dejun.

74. Interviews with KK and LL.

75. In a 1986 interview, Huang Yongyu identified a student who entered the academy in 1959 and was assigned to his studio in 1961 as his best student.

76. Cai Ruohong, "Fangxiang yiding daolu biguang" (The direction is determined but the road should be broad), MS 1962, no. 2, p. 43.

77. Other participants were CAFA artists Ma Changli, Li Huaji, Liang Yulong, and Ge Weimo; Xin Mang, a cadre from the creation studio at the People's Art Press; Liu Qing from the army; Gu Zhujun from Tianjin; Li Renjie from Sichuan; Xiang Ergong from Guangdong; Wei Lianfu from Manchuria; Tuo Musi from Inner Mongolia; Wu Yongnian; Dong Gang; and Fu Zhigui from Xi'an; and Yun Qicang from Hubei.

78. Interviews with D, DA, and DB.

79. Zhang was featured as Tintin's friend Chang in Hergé's classics The Blue Lotus (Boston: Little, Brown, 1984) and Tintin in Tibet (Boston: Little, Brown, 1975). Zhang, who was Hergé's classmate and friend at art school in Brussels, helped research and execute the two volumes, which are filled with local color and autobiographical details. Le Lotus bleu was first published in a Belgian magazine in 1934-1935. Both works have been reissued in English translation.

80. Zhang Chongren, interview, Paris, 1990.

81. "Tan shuicai hua" (On watercolor painting), MS 1962, no. 5, pp. 61-69.

82. Other guohua teachers were Tang Yun, Yu Zhicai, and Ying Yeping.

83. "Meixie xiang fenhui he meishujia tichu changyi" (The artists association brings forth a proposal for branch associations and artists), MS 1958, no. 4, p. 5. Zhou Enlai's 1959 warnings against the practice indicate that, in actuality, the old and the weak were required by zealous bureaucrats to engage in excessively strenuous work. See Zhou Enlai yu wenyi , pp. 7-8.

84. MS 1958, no. 8, p. 40.

85. China Reconstructs 7 , no. 11 (Nov. 1958): 17.

86. MS 1958, no. 8, p. 40.

87. Ibid.

88. "Jiajia shige huhu hua" (Every home a poem, every household a painting), MS 1958, no. 9, p. 28.

89. This important phenomenon was discussed by Ellen Laing in Winking Owl , pp. 31-32, and in "Chinese Peasant Painting, 1958-1976: Amateur and Professional," Art International 27, no. 1 (Jan.-Mar. 1984): 1-12.

90. Peking Review , Sept. 23, 1958, p. 18.

91. One such album, exhibited in October 1990, is in the Nanjing Museum.

92. MS 1958, no. 4, p. 5.

93. MS 1959, no. 11, p. 51.

94. For mention of the ill effect of this policy on industry and agriculture, see Parris Chang, Power and Policy in China , p. 106.

95. "Shoudu zhongguohua jie juxing dayuejin chuangzuo zhanlan" (The capital's Chinese painting circles hold a Great Leap Forward creation exhibition), MS 1959, no. 1, p. 11.

96. "Meixie Shanghai fenhui zhiding 1958 nian guihua" (CAA Shanghai branch sets 1958 plan), MS 1958, no. 4, p. 22.

97. "Shanghai meishujia zai yuejin" (Shanghai artists are leaping forward), MS 1958, no. 4, p. 16.

98. MS 1958, no. 4, p. 23. There was a proliferation of organizations referred to as "preparatory committees" during this period. Most of them seem to have operated as full-fledged cultural institutions, even though formal approval of their existence had not yet been bestowed by the central authorities.

99. "Da yue jin" (The Great Leap Forward), MS 1958, no. 5, p. 19.

100. MS 1958, no. 8, p. 40.

101. MS 1958, no. 5, p. 19.

102. Ibid.

103. Hua Junwu, "Qinianlai de huiwu gongzuo (1953-1960)" (Seven years of association work), MS 1960, nos. 8-9, p. 12.

104. Ibid. New branches were formally established in Shandong ( MS 1959, no. 8, p. 50) and Heilongjiang ( MS 1959, no. 1, p. 35). By 1960, branches existed in Jiangxi ( MS 1959, no. 12, p. 14), Xinjiang ( MS 1960, no. 1, p. 41), Qinghai, Guangdong, and Guangxi (ibid., p. 43), Hubei ( MS 1960, no. 2, p. 35), and Anhui ( MS 1960, no. 3, p. 9). Areas with well-publicized art activities but no mention of local branches are Gansu and Liaoning ( MS 1960, no. 1, pp. 41-42).

105. Among such examples are Zhang Fagen, an oil painter who rose from an editorial position to become vice-chairman of the Anhui branch of the CAA (interview); and Shi Lu, who became chief of the Xibei huabao (Northwest Pictorial) publishing house in about 1951 and in 1954 was selected as vice-chairman of the Xi'an branch. Li Shaoyan, who worked at Xinhua ribao (New China daily) in Sichuan became chairman of the Sichuan branch.

106. Hua Junwu, "Qinianlai de huiwu gongzuo," p. 12.

107. Meishu fenglei , no. 3 (1967): 27.

108. Laing, Winking Owl , pp. 31-32; interview with MP.

109. Xi Xiaopeng, "Chonglou guangxia weiwei daguan" (Splendid buildings make a grand sight), MS 1959, no. 12, pp. 39-44. Planning for the museum displays alone took more than seven months. Based on different Chinese sources, Wu Hung included the Chinese National Art Gallery in his List of Ten Great Buildings, "Official Space to Public Space: The Chinese Art Gallery," Columbus, Ohio, October 9, 1993-According to Wu, no official list exists; presumably, more than ten new buildings were planned at the time.

110. The first exhibition at the new Chinese National Art Gallery opened on May 23, 1962, to commemorate the twentieth anniversary of the Yah'an Talks. See "Quanguo meishujie relie jinian Mao Zedong tongzhi 'Zai Yan'an wenyi zuotanhuishang de jianghua' fabiao 20 zhounian" (National art circles ardently commemorate the twentieth anniversary of publication of Comrade Mao Zedong's "Yan'an Talks on Literature and Arts"), MS 1962, no. 4, p. 4.

111. Laing, Winking Owl , p. 92n.9.

112. Xi Xiaopeng, "Chonglou guangxia," p. 39. Much of the vast area of the palace compound consisted of unroofed courtyards, so was presumably excluded from this calculation.

113. Interviews with M, O, BI, and BJ.

114. Xi Xiaopeng, "Chonglou guangxia," p. 39.

115. Hua Junwu, "Qinianlai de huiwu gongzuo," p. 13.

116. Discussion of the commission appears in Fu Baoshi and Guan Shanyue, "Wanfang gewusheng zhong tantan women chuangzuo 'Jiangshan ruci duojiao' de diandi tihui" (Discussions, amid the sounds of song and dance everywhere, of realizations made while creating This Land So Rich in Beauty), MS 1959, no. 10, p. 14; and Guan Zhendong, "Qingman guanshan—Guan Shanyue zhuan" (Feeling fills the passes and mountains—a biography of Guan Shanyue), RMRB , overseas edition, Aug. 2-3, 1989. Fu and Guan record the project as lasting about two months. Guan Zhendong claims that the revised version was made in about two weeks. On such statistical questions we will defer to Fu and Guan's nearly contemporary account.

117. MS 1959, no. 12, p. 40.

118. The poem, written in 1936, appears in many collections, including the bilingual Mao Zedong Poems (Beijing: Commercial Press, 1976), pp. 46-49.

119. If the painting did not appear so labored, it might be equally possible that their claim was false modesty, since public deference to party authority was advisable. A Shanghai painter claims that during the late Cultural Revolution period it became standard practice for artists to make obvious and easily correctable formal mistakes so that the party officials would not come up with more difficult compositional or political suggestions for revisions. Interview with X.

120. Mao Zedong Poems , pp. 46-49.

121. Fu Baoshi huaji (Nanjing: Jiangsu meishu chubanshe, 1985), pl. 57. Guan's painting has been studied by Arnold Chang, Painting in the People's Republic , pp. 51-57; and by Ellen Laing, Winking Owl , chap. 4 passim, and pp. 77-78.

122. Guan Zhendong, "Qingman guanshan," Aug. 2, 1989.

123. Ibid., Aug. 3, 1989.

124. The album, owned by the Nanjing Museum, was exhibited at the museum in October 1990.

125. The work was exhibited in the Second National Art Exhibition of 1955; see Dierjie quanguo meishu zhanlanhui , no. 210.

126. James Cahill makes a similar but more elaborate argument for Western influence in seventeenth-century painting in Compelling Image . For the Japanese influence on Guan and fellow artists of the Lingnan school, see Croizier, Art and Revolution .

127. Unfortunately, signs of previous repairs and the buckling of the painting evident in the fall of 1990 testify to the fact that, tough as it is, Chinese paper is less suitable than canvas to the stresses of prolonged public exposure.

128. Cohen, New Chinese Painting , pp. 25-26, refers to this trend.

129. Julia K. Murray's research has shown that early Southern Song emperors commissioned many illustrations to literary texts that might support their claims to dynastic legitimacy. For one example of Murray's work, see "Ts'ao Hsün and Two Southern Song History Scrolls," Ars Orientalis 15 (1985): 1-29. Many depictions of auspicious natural phenomena, intended as comments on the virtuous rule of the current emperor, have been produced since Han times. For a study of an early phase in this development, see Wu Hung, The Wu Family Shrine: The Ideology of Early Chinese Pictorial Art (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1989).

130. See Laing, Winking Owl , p. 36, for further material about the painting's symbolism.

131. A well-known artistic example is the recorded portrait of the official Xie Kun, who was depicted by the portraitist Gu Kaizhi in a landscape setting. The most useful study of this tradition is by Shou-chien Shih, "The Mind Landscape of Hsieh Yu-yü," in Images of the Mind: Selections from the Edward L. Elliott Collections of Chinese Calligraphy and Painting at the Art Museum, Princeton University , ed. Wen C. Fong (Princeton: The Art Museum, Princeton University, 1984), pp. 237-254. For a literary text referring to Xie Kun, see Liu I-ch'ing, A New Account of Tales of the World , trans. Richard Mather (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1976), pp. 253-254.

132. See, for example, Barbara Novak, Nature and Culture: American Landscape and Painting, 1825-1875 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1980).

133. His painting for the Great Hall of the People was entitled Watering Horses at the Yan River ; see Shi Lu huiguzhan , "Nianbiao" (Chronology), n.p.

134. One can indeed see the influence of Shitao, the seventeenth-century individualist, in Fighting in Northern Shaanxi . It is most notable in the brushwork of the mountain contours, but may have affected the overall composition as well. Nevertheless, such influence is quite faint, and it is not a very significant element in the work as a whole.

135. Biographical material from Yang Mingsheng (ed.), Zhongguo xiandai huajia zhuan, xia , pp. 464-471.

136. Spence, Search for Modern China , p. 599.

137. Interview with Jin Shangyi. The work was destroyed during the Cultural Revolution. According to an incomplete list in the Red Guard periodical Meisbu fenglei , no. 1 (1967): 10, the exhibition planning committee included Qian Junrui, Deng Tuo, and Qi Yanming.

138. Meishu fenglei , no. 1 (1967): 10-12.

139. The painting was exhibited at the Museum of Revolutionary History during the fall of 1990.

140. For Ellen Laing's excellent discussion of the political significance of the Red Guard attack on this painting in 1967, see Winking Owl , pp. 38-39.

141. Meishu fenglei , no. 1 (1967): 10-14.

142. Qualitative considerations lead us to reject the claim by Yang Mingsheng that Luo's training at the National Hangzhou Arts Academy was irrelevent to his development. Moreover, Yang's implication that Luo had never painted in oils before executing Tunnel Warfare is incredible. Luo's 1951 Mao Zedong Presenting the Rectification Report , exhibited at the Museum of Revolutionary History in the fall of 1990, displays great technical skill. For Yang Mingsheng's view, see Zhongguo xiandai hua-jia zhuan, xia , p. 593.

143. Reproduced in James Cahill, Distant Mountains , pls. 41-44; and in Osvald Siren, Chinese Painting: Leading Masters and Principles , 7 vols. (New York: Ronald Press, 1956-1958), vol. 6, pls. 67-72.

144. Interviews with BJ, BI, and BK.

145. The information in this section is taken largely from Jiang Weipu, "Zhong-guo xin lianhuanhua yishu de sishinian," pp. 9-14; Wu Zhaoxiu, "Yiwei didi daodao de lianhuanhuajia" (A true serial picture artist), in Lianhuanhua yishu , ser. no. 11 (1989, no. 3): 55-69; Quanguo lianhuanhua huojiang zuopinxuan ; and interviews with AP, S, and R.

146. Attributed to Zhang Zeduan, this highly detailed handscroll is in the Palace Museum Collection, Beijing. See Zhongguo lidai huihua, Gugong bowuyuan canghuaji (Beijing: People's Art Press, 1981), 2:60-61.

147. "Jiangsu sheng zhongguohua zhanlanhui zaijing zhanchu" (The Jiangsu province Chinese painting exhibition is displayed in the capital), MS 1959, no. 1, p. 9.

148. D.W. Fokkema, Literary Doctrine in China and Soviet Influence , 1956-1960 (The Hague: Mouton, 1965), pp. 196-202. Fokkema argues that Zhou Yang obscured the Soviet underpinnings of the "union of revolutionary realism and revolutionary romanticism" in order to urge a more Chinese approach to literature. While such an approach was politically appropriate during a period when China deviated from Soviet economic models, one of its primary side effects was a more positive evaluation of classical Chinese poetry.

149. The date of the exhibition is from Fu Baoshi huaji, nianpu , n.p.

150. Ouyang Huilin, "Jiangsu zhongguohua de 'Baihua qifang, tuichen chuxin' (Jiangsu Chinese painting's "Hundred flowers bloom at once, weed out the old to bring forth the new"), MS 1959, no. 1, p. 2.

151. Fu Baoshi, "Zhengzhi guale shuai, bimo jiou butong—cong Jiangsu sheng zhongguohua zhanlanhui tanqi" (With politics in command, brush and ink are different—comments inspired by the Jiangsu province Chinese painting exhibition), MS 1959, no. 1, pp. 4-5.

152. For discussion of such projects at the courts of the Kangxi and Qianlong emperors, see Maxwell Hearn, "Document and Portrait: the Southern Tour Paintings of Kangxi and Qianlong," Phoebus (Tucson) 6, no. 1 (1988): special issue entitled "Chinese Painting Under the Qianlong Emperor."

153. Qian Songyan huaxuan (Selected paintings of Qian Songyan) (Beijing: People's Art Press, 1984), no. 1.

154. Jiangsu sheng guohua zhanlanhui .

155. Fu Baoshi, "Zhengzhi guale shuai, bimo jiou butong," p. 5.

156. Fokkema, Literary Doctrine , p. 199.

157. Fu Baoshi, "Zhengzhi guale shuai, bimo jiou butong," p. 5.

158. Fu Baoshi huaji , 1958, as referred to in Fu Baoshi huaji (1985), nianpu , n.p.

159. Interview with MR.

160. Speech by Yu Jigao, Jiangsu Painting Institute, October 21, 1990, and interview with Wu Linsen, Nanjing, 1990.

161. Fu Baoshi huaji (1985), nianpu .

162. MS 1960, no. 5, p. 55.

163. Interview with MR.

164. Fu Baoshi buaji (1985), nianpu .

165. Among Fu Baoshi's early art historical writings on Ming and Qing painting are S hitao nianpu gao (Draft chronology of Shitao, 1936), Shitao congkao (Study on Shitao, 1937), Datizi tihua shiba jiaobu (Collated and annotated inscriptions on paintings by Shitao, 1937), Shitao hualun zhi yanjiu (Research on Shitao's painting theory, 1937), Shitao shengzu kao (A study of Shitao's dates, 1937), and Zhongguo Mingmo minzu yiren zhuan (Biographies of late-Ming nationalist artists, 1939). List from Fu Baoshi huaji (1985), nianpu .

166. See Cahill, Compelling Image , pp. 146-183. See also Cahill's sources (p. 236n.9), including the pioneering article on the Nanjing school by Aschwinn Lippe, "Kung Hsien and the Nanking School," Oriental Art , n.s., 2, no. 1 (1956): 3-11; 4, no. 4 (1958): 3-14; and William Ding Yee Wu, "Kung Hsien (ca. 1619-1689)" (Ph.D. diss., Princeton University, 1979). For Gong Xian's political concerns, which were an additional aspect of his appeal to Fu Baoshi, see Liu Gangji, Gong Xian (Shanghai: Shanghai People's Art Press, 1962); and Jerome Silbergeld, "Political Symbolism in the Landscape Painting and Poetry of Kung Hsien (c. 1620-1689)" (Ph.D. diss., Stanford University, 1974).

167. Fu Baoshi huaji (1985), nianpu .

168. Xiao Ping, Ya Ming's biographer, records that the Jiangsu Provincial Painting Institute was founded in 1957, with Ya Ming as vice-director. In fact, the institute was not formally established until several years later. Nevertheless, it is safe to assume that Ya Ming played a key role in administering the as yet unofficial but very active organization, probably functioning for all practical purposes as its vice-director. See Ya Ming Hua Ji (Nanjing: Jinling shuhua she, 1982).

169. Reproduced in MS 1959, no. 1, p. 23; and in Shinian zhongguo huihua xuanji , pl. 95; and discussed in Andrews, "Traditional Painting in New China," pp. 570-571.

170. The museum accession number, 12.886, indicates that the painting was acquired in 1912.

171. MS 1956, no. 2, p. 15.

172. The painting's full title is Yingxi huolang tu (Playing Children and Peddler). It is reproduced, with discussion by Sherman E. Lee, in Eight Dynasties of Chinese Painting: Collections of the Nelson Gallery-Atkins Museum, Kansas City, and The Cleveland Museum of Art , ed. Sherman Lee and Wai-kam Ho (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1980), no. 35. For a good study of Li Song, see Ellen Johnston Laing, "Li Sung and Some Aspects of Southern Sung Figure Painting," Artibus Asiae 37, nos. 1-2 (1975): 5-38.

173. For a list of known paintings by Li Song, see James Cahill, An Index of Early Chinese Painters and Paintings: Tang, Sung, Yuan (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1980), pp. 119-120.

174. Modern Paintings in the Chinese Style , supplement to China Reconstructs , September 1960.

175. Siren, Chinese Painting , vol. 3, pls. 11-15.

176. ''Yanzhe wuchan jieji de yishu daolu yongmeng qianjin" (March boldly forward on the road of proletarian class arts), MS 1960, no. 7, pp. 41-44.

177. MS 1960, no. 7, pp. 45-54.

178. MS 1961, no. 4, p. 63.

179. Speech delivered on June 19, 1961; in Zhou Enlai yu wenyi , p. 15.

180. "'Shanhe xinmao' guanzhong yijian zhailu" (Excerpts from opinions of viewers to "New Look of Mountains and Rivers"), MS 1961, no. 4, p. 64.

181. The term is xinqing shuchang , to have ease of mind; ibid., and Zhou Enlai yu wenyi , p. 5 (text of a speech delivered to arts leaders on May 3, 1959).

182. Ellen Laing considers the poetic quality to be one of the most important critical concepts of the period; see Winking Owl , pp. 40-47.

183. Yu Feng, "Kan 'Shanhe xinmao' huazhan suiji" (Notes on viewing the exhibition "New Look of Mountains and Rivers"), MS 1961, no. 4, p. 63; and "'Shanhe xinmao' guanzhong yijian zhailu," ibid., p. 64.

184. Ellen Laing has discussed examples of Yan'an prints of the mid-1940s, such as those of Gu Yuan: "through simplifying the technique, reducing the number of lines used, and clarifying the composition, Gu Yuan devises a picture of great impact and directness of method" ( Winking Owl , p. 15).

185. Li describes Ren as the chief secretary of the Leftist Alliance in 1930s Shanghai.

186. Ya Ming has similarly described the Nanjing leadership as good and as having somewhat deflected the impact of the Anti-Rightist campaign on Nanjing guohua painters.

187. The officers seem to have been printmakers as well. Li Shaoyan served as vice-chairman and, later, as chairman. Niu Wen was, for a time, head of the branch secretariat and vice-chairman. Wu Fan and Li Huanmin both served as vice-chairmen. See biographies in Zhongguo xinxing banhua wushinian, xia , pp. 24, 30, 34.

188. He stated that artists were actively encouraged by the leaders to make art, which was considered a revolutionary activity in itself. Through a concentration on talent, mutual help, and competition, local art was improved. Moreover, money was never a problem. Interview with MS.

189. "Zai hongzhuan jiehe de daolu shang qianjin" (Advancing on the road to the unity of red and expert), MS 1960, no. 7, pp. 53-54.

190. Twelve artists from the print group attended the meeting, and several others were model workers at the local level.

191. "Zai hongzhuan jiehe de daolu shang qianjin."

192. One suspects that this statistic reflects Great Leap Forward amateurs, who may not have been important to the group's long-term development.

193. The volume that I have seen is actually titled Sichuan banhua xuan , ed. Sichuan shinian wenxue yishu xuanji bianji weiyuan hui (Editorial Committee for Selections from Ten Years of Sichuan Literature and Art) (Chongqing: Sichuan People's Press, 1960).

194. "Zai hongzhuan jiehe de daolushang qianjin."

195. Some additional material on Li Shaoyan's career may be found in Silbergeld, Contradictions , pp. 24, 25, 64. Other Sichuan printmakers appear as part of Silbergeld's study of Sichuan guohua .

196. Li's brother had studied at the Shanghai Art Academy, but his subsequent unemployment convinced the younger man to learn a more practical profession.

197. Biographical details from interview, 1986; and from Zhongguo xinxing banhua wushinian, xia , p. 34.

198. One knowledgeable source claims that he was director of the provincial propaganda department; interview with K.

199. The Southwestern Artists Association was founded in 1953 and the Sichuan Artists Association in 1954; interview with MS. Jerome Silbergeld, whose source appears more complete, describes a period between 1954 and 1958 when the association was called Chongqing Branch of the CAA, before it relocated to Chengdu and became the Sichuan Artists Association; see Contradictions , p. 223n.36.

200. They include Song Guangxun, who worked there from 1951 to 1954. Wu Fan also worked as an editor. Harriet Mills first brought the importance of the publishing houses as training grounds for Communist art administrators to my attention.

201. This style appears to have been widespread in the late forties and early fifties.

202. See Sichuan banhua xuan , ed. Chinese Artists Association, Sichuan Branch, and Sichuan Art Press (Chengdu: Sichuan Art Press, 1981), nos. 5, 11, 22, 37, 61, 96.

203. Ibid., no. 27. This work has been published in Zhongguo xinxing banhua, xia , no. 274, as a work of 1960.

204. He was a member of the art work team of North China United University, as were classmates at CAFA, such as Wen Lipeng and Zhang Tongxia.

205. Interviews with MS, MT, and MU; Zhongguo xinxing banhua wushinian, xia , p. 34.

206. Li Shaoyan showed me a battered copy of Sulian banhua ji (Soviet prints), a reprint of Lu Xun's compilation published by Chenguan (Dawn) Publishing in Shanghai in 1949. The Lu Xun book was clearly very influential in the late forties and early fifties.

207. Wu Fan banhuaxuan (Selected prints of Wu Fan) (Chengdu: Sichuan Art Press, 1985), n.p.

208. See ibid. for reproductions.

209. Also reproduced and discussed in Laing, Winking Owl , pl. 5 and p. 17; and Silbergeld, Contradictions , pp. 172-173.

210. Laing, Winking Owl , p. 17.

211. Beidaihuang banhua sanshinian (Thirty years of Beidahuang prints) (Harbin: Heilongjiang People's Press, 1988), p. 4. This source quotes an April 8 Politburo document describing the goals of the relocation program.

212. Ding Lihuai, "Guangyao de yishu daolu" (A brilliant artistic path), reprinted from RMRB , Nov. 11, 1960, in Beidaihuang banhua sanshinian , p. 49. The author was a party committee secretary for the Peony River Agricultural Reclamation Bureau at the time he wrote.

213. Beidahuang banhua sanshinian , p. 4.

214. Among the rightists who were sent to Beidahuang were the writers Ding Ling and Ai Qing. Rightist artists included the former director and vice-director of the Northeast Academy of Art, Yang Jiao and Zhang Xiaofei; military artists Zhang Qinruo and Xu Jiecheng; a pioneer of Soviet-style propaganda painting, Hu Kao; a staff printmaker for Beijing People's Publishing House, Zhang Lu; the traditional painter Huang Miaozi; the cartoonist Ding Cong, originally deputy editor of China Pictorial ; and Yin Shoushi, originally chief secretary of the Beijing Chinese Painting Institute. See Zhang Zuoliang, ''Heitu tieli kedao—beidahuang banhua sanshinian manyi" (Black soil, iron plow, woodcut knife—informal recollections of thirty years of Beidahuang prints), in Beidahuang banhua sanshinian , pp. 61-62; and Chao Mei, "Beidahuang banhua chuqi de chuangzuo huodong" (Creation activities in the early period of Beidahuang prints), reprinted from Wenshi ziliao (Materials on cultural history), in Beidahuang banhua sanshinian , pp. 76-77.

215. Zheng Kangxing, who was involved in establishing these cultural policies, attributes the success of the group to contributions of specific administrators. The initial inquiries were initiated by Wang Yuyin, the Agricultural Reclamation Bureau party committee vice-secretary and political department chief. Permission was granted by personnel and propaganda officials of the Agricultural Reclamation Ministry in Beijing. Policies were put into effect under the direction of Ding Lihuai, then culture and education secretary for the Agricultural Reclamation Bureau's party committee. Zheng himself was vice-director of the party committee propaganda department for the Peony River Agricultural Reclamation Bureau. See Zheng Kangxin, "Zhuhe Beidahuang banhua sanshinian" (Best wishes after thirty years of Beidahuang prints), in Beidahuang banhua sanshinian , pp. 54-55.

216. Zhongguo xiandai meisbujia mingjian , p. 289.

217. Chao Mei banhua (Prints by Chao Mei), preface by Gu Yuan (Harbin: Heilongjiang People's Press, 1982), n.p.; and Zhang Zuoliang, "Heitu tieli kedao," p. 63.

218. Art activity in other media was also taking place, but it never received the recognition accorded the printmakers. Photographs taken of the artists in their studio in 1959 show walls covered with socialist realist oil paintings; see Beidahuang banhua sanshinian , pp. 8-9. Moreover, artists who arrived in Beidahuang included some well-known artists in other media, such as the guohua painter Yin Shoushi, who had served as chief secretary of the Beijing Chinese Painting Institute. Hao Boyi, Zhang Zuoliang's protégé, worked in oils during his early years in Heilongjiang. See Zhang Zuoliang, "Heitu tieli kedao," pp. 61, 64.

219. Chao Mei, "'Beidahuang' chuangkanhao fengmian jishi" (Records of the cover of Beidahuang Pictorial's inaugural issue), reprinted from Beidahuang Pictorial , 1984, no. 2, in Beidahuang banhua sanshinian , pp. 92-96.

220. Unless otherwise noted, the chronology below is taken from Beidahuang banhua sanshinian , pp. 4-13.

221. Zheng Kangxing, "Zhuhe Beidahuang banhua sanshinian," p. 54.

222. Banhua , ser. no. 16 (Apr. 24, 1959, no. 2): 24.

223. Banhua , ser. no. 18 (Aug. 24, 1959, no. 4): 37.

224. Shinianlai banhua xuanji (Selected prints of the past decade) (Shanghai: People's Art Press, 1959), no. 159.

225. They included Zhang Lu, Hao Boyi, Yin Shoushi, Xu Jiecheng, Zhang Qinruo, Du Hongnian, and Xu Leng.

226. "Xinxin xiangrong de dongbei sansheng meishu chuangzuo" (Flourishing artistic creation in the three northeastern provinces), MS 1959, no. 9, p. 33.

227. Zhang Zuoliang, "Heitu tieli kedao," p. 70.

228. Zheng Kangxing, "Zhuhe Beidahuang banhua sanshinian," p. 52.

229. Zheng Kangxing describes borrowing money to pay the cultural workers salaries in ibid, p. 55.

230. Opinions from the symposium were published in Guangming ribao on December 13, 1960, along with Wang Zhaowen's speech, entitled "Zhengfu huangyuan" (Control the wilderness).

231. The exhibition, which opened August 30, 1961, was entitled "Prints from the Peony River Reclamation District."

232. Beidahuang banhuaxuan (Selected prints from Beidahuang) (Beijing: People's Art Press, 1962).

233. One source estimates that by 1978, 25 to 35 percent of the population of Inner Mongolia, Xinjiang, Heilongjiang, and Qinghai provinces comprised recent migrants and their children; see Frederica M. Bunge and Rinn-sup Shinn, China: A Country Study (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1981), p. 62.

234. Banhua , ser. no. 16 (Apr. 24, 1959, no. 2): 3.

235. Russian and Soviet Painting: An Exhibition from the Museums of the USSR Presented at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, and the Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art/Rizzoli International, 1977), p. 127.

236. A young woman from Sichuan reportedly made her decision to go to Heilongjiang upon reading the first issue of Beidahuang Pictorial .

237. Preface to Shi Lu zuopin xuanji (Selected works of Shi Lu), ed. Ping Ye (Beijing: People's Art Press, 1983), sec. 3.

238. The Xi'an branch of the CAA was the forerunner of the current Shaanxi branch of the CAA.

239. This biography is taken from Ling Hubiao, "Zhao Wangyun shengping jiliie" (Brief biography of Zhao Wangyun), Duoyun , no. 13 (1987): 151-158; and idem, "Zhao Wangyun nianbiao" (Chronology of Zhao Wangyun), in Meishu tongxun , special issue entitled ''Zhao Wangyun xiansheng jinian wenji'' (Anthology to commemorate Zhao Wangyun) (Shaanxi: CAA Shaanxi Branch, 1987), pp. 52-59, unless otherwise noted.

240. Zhao Wangyun, Zhao Wangyun saishang xiesheng ji (Sketches from the border) (n.p., 1934); James E. Sheridan, Chinese Warlord: The Career of Feng Yü-hsiang (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1966), pp. 273-274, records that Zhao and Feng collaborated on at least two such books. Sheridan (p. 361) mentions one I have not seen: Zhao Wangyun nongcun xiesheng ji (Tianjin, 1934).

241. Ling Hubiao, "Zhao Wangyan nianbiao," p. 53.

242. His work unit was part of the Cultural Section of the Northwest Military Administrative Committee.

243. Provincial cultural bureaus were extremely important. They transmitted orders from the Ministry of Culture in Beijing as well as from their provincial governments.

244. Twenty-four pictures were published in Zhao Wangyun Shi Lu Aiji Xieshenghua xuanji (Sketches of Egypt by Zhao Wangyun and Shi Lu) (Xi'an: Chang'an Art Press, 1957).

245. For a chronology of his career, see Shi Guo's contribution in Shi Lu Huiguzhan , n.p.

246. Even Wang Zhaowen later described this work as "immature"; see "Tansuo zaitansuo" (Explore and explore), MS 1963, no. 6, pp. 8-12. This essay also serves as the preface to Shi Lu zuopin xuanji , which, though originally printed in 1964, was never distributed because of political questions.

247. Ling Hubiao, in the volume he edited, Shi Lu xuehualu (Shi Lu's record on studying painting) (Xi'an: Shaanxi People's Art Press, 1985), p. 75, states that Shi Lu was interested primarily in Western forms of art until after his trips to Egypt and India, an opinion that Shi Lu's extant works would confirm.

248. He was identified as chairman of the Xi'an branch of the CAA in MS 1958, no. 8, p. 40.

249. ''Jiaqiang wenyi xiuyang, tigao chuangzuo zhiliang—zuotanhui jiyao" (Strengthen literary and arts cultivation, raise creation standards—conference proceedings), MS 1959, no. 9, pp. 10-12.

250. Shi Lu, "Gaoju Mao Zedong wenyi sixiang de qizhi; pandeng wuchan jieji yishu de gaofeng" (Raise high the banner of Mao Zedong's thought on literature and art, climb the peak of proletarian art), MS 1960, no. 4, pp. 7-10.

251. This appears to target exposé literature, such as that by the rightists Liu Binyan and Wang Meng.

252. Fokkema, Literary Doctrine , 1965.

253. Reproduced in S hi Lu xuehualu , unnumbered plate.

254. "Xinyi xinqing—Xi'an meixie zhongguohua yanjiushi xizuozhan zuotanhui jilu" (New meaning, new feelings—proceedings of the conference about the Xi'an CAA Chinese Painting Research Center's exhibition of studies), MS 1961, no. 6, pp. 21-29.

255. Reproduced in MS 1961, no. 6, p. 33.

256. Jiaoyubu dierci quanguo meishu zhanlanhui zhuanji , vol. 2, no. 102.

257. Interview, Beijing, 1990. Also see "He Haixia nianbiao," Zhongguohua yanjiu , no. 5 (Sept. 1988): 64.

258. "He Haixia nianbiao," p. 64.

259. Shi Lu xuehualu , pp. 45-46.

260. "Xinyi xinqing," p. 27.

261. Wang Zhaowen, "Zaizai tansuo," sec. 4. Wang gives no source for this statement, but an article by Yan Lichuan, "Lun 'Ye, guai, luan, hei'—jian tan yishu pinglun wenti" (A discussion of ''Wild, weird, chaotic, and black''—and on problems in art criticism), MS 1963, no. 4, pp. 20-24, is one example.

262. Wang Zhaowen, "Zaizai tansuo," sec. 4.

263. A 1964 figure in this style is reproduced in Shi Lu huiguzhan , no. 8.

264. Interviews with MV and MW. Lawrence Wu is currently studying his art and insanity.

265. Interview with MX.

266. Quanguo meishu zhanlanhui—jinian Mao Zedong tongzhi zai Yan'an wenyi zuotanhui shang de jianghua fabiao ershi zhou nian , 1942-1962 (National Art Exhibition—in commemoration of the twentieth anniversary of the publication of Comrade Mao Zedong's Yan'an Talks on Literature and Arts) (exhibition checklist) (Beijing: Ministry of Culture/CAA, 1962).

267. MS 1962, no. 4, p. 56.

268. See Laing's discussion of this exhibition, Winking Owl , pp. 51-52; and "Lin Fengmian huazhan guanzhong yijian zhailu" (Excerpts from the opinions of viewers to the Lin Fengmian exhibition), MS 1963, no. 4, pp. 37-38.

269. Dong Xiwen, "Huahui de secai wenti" (The problem of color in painting), MS 1962, no. 2, pp. 21-27.

270. Wu Guanzhong, "Tan Fengjinghua" (On landscape painting), MS 1962, no. 2, pp. 27-28.

271. Li Shu [pen name of Li Shusheng], "Woguo zuizao de jiwei youhua jia" (Our nation's earliest oil painters), MS 1962, no. 4, pp. 68-69.

272. The following biography is largely taken from Sun Meilan, "Li Keran nianbiao" (Chronology of Li Keran), Duoyun , no. 7 (Nov. 1984): 123-126. See Chu-tsing Li, Trends , pp. 136-141, for another discussion of his work.

273. They are (as cited in Sun Meilan, "Li Keran nianbiao," p. 25) "Tan yishu shijian zhong de kugong" (On the hard work of artistic practice), RMRB , Apr. 1960; and "Shanshui hua de yijing'' (The conceptual realm of landscape painting), RMRB , June 1960.

274. A number of his paintings were reproduced in MS 1959, no. 9.

275. An example is Ferry at Yangshuo , reproduced in MS 1959, no. 5, p. 53.

276. MS 1959, no. 9, p. 26.

277. Du Zhesen, "Li Keran he ta de yishu fengge" (Li Keran and his artistic style), Meishu yanjiu , 1990, no. 1, p. 7.

278. Interviews with NA, W, and MM.

279. The following biographical discussion is based on the research of Dai Xiaojing, "Yanyu gongyang taoxie jiangshan: Wu Hufan zhuanlüe" (Nurtured by clouds, painting fine streams and mountains), Duoyun , no. 10 (May 1986): 138-160.

280. Huang was his maternal first cousin.

281. MS 1956, no. 6, p. 36.

282. The work was displayed in a retrospective exhibition of Wu's painting held in Shanghai in the fall of 1981.

283. Interview with Cheng Shifa, Shanghai, 1990.

284. Interview with MM.

285. See Christoph Harbsmeier, The Cartoonist Feng Zikai: Social Realism with a Buddhist Face (Oslo: Universitetsforlaget, 1984).

286. Interview with MM.

287. The date given here was supplied by a participant in the program. A published account refers to an effort conducted in "1961 and after"; see Wu Xiu, "Beijing huayuan sanshinian" (Thirty years of the Beijing Painting Institute), Zhongguohua yanjiu , no. 5 (Sept. 1988): 94. Academically trained graduates of CAFA, CAAC, and Beijing Arts College ( Beijing yishu xueyuan , an institution that was disbanded soon after) made up the younger staff members of the Beijing Painting Institute.

288. Interview with EA.

289. Wu Xiu, "Beijing huayuan sanshinian," p. 94.

290. Spence, Search for Modern China , pp. 590-596.

291. Ahn, Chinese Politics and the Cultural Revolution , pp. 173-177.

292. Yan Lichuan, "Lun 'Ye, guai, luan, hei,'" pp. 20-24.

293. I have not matched these two titles with known works, although further research might identify them with reproductions listed in Ellen Johnston Laing, An Index to Reproductions of Paintings by Twentieth-Century Chinese Artists , Asian Studies Program, publication no. 6 (Eugene: University of Oregon, June 1984).

294. "Lin Fengmian huazhan guanzhong yijian zhailu."

295. Interview with JJ.

296. Wang, Zhao, and Zhao, "Zhongyang meishu xueyuan lishi, fulu," p. 103.

297. This school originated in the art department of Beijing Normal University. The department was transferred to the newly established Beijing Normal College of Arts in 1956. Six years later, in 1961, the school name was simplified to Beijing Arts College. See Zhang Anzhi huaji (A collection of paintings by Zhang Anzhi) (Beijing: Guoji wenhua chubanshe, 1991), pp. 112-115; and, with a slightly different rendering of the school names, Anne Farrer, with Michael Sullivan and Mayching Kao, Wu Guanzhong: A Twentieth-Century Chinese Painter (London: British Museum, 1992), pp. 41-43.

298. Ahn, Chinese Politics and the Cultural Revolution , p. 161.

299. Ibid., p. 173.

300. Ibid., p. 161.

301. Interview with NC. The works were exhibited in 1964.

302. Wang, Zhao, and Zhao, "Zhongyang meishu xueyuan lishi, fulu," p. 103.

303. Although former students described CAFA as an "experimental site," it is difficult to see how CAFA activities differ from rectification campaigns conducted in other cultural units in Beijing, some of which were run by the same officials who organized the CAFA rectification. See Ahn, Chinese Politics and the Cultural Revolution , pp. 173-181. The difference, if one existed, might be the way in which students were urged to attack the leaders. Student activism, of course, foreshadows the Cultural Revolution, but was an important part of the Anti-Rightist campaign and earlier rectification movements.

304. Meishu fenglei , no. 3 (1967): 25-26.

305. Ahn, Chinese Politics and the Cultural Revolution , p. 214.

306. Interviews with JJ and AN.

307. Interview with BB and OO.

308. Meishu fenglei , no. 3 (1967): 26.

309. Information from H.

310. Meishu fenglei , no. 3 (1967): 26.

311. Ibid.

312. Ahn, Chinese Politics and the Cultural Revolution , p. 177, citing RMRB , June 4, 1967, and Guangming ribao , June 2, 1967.

313. Meishu fenglei , no. 3 (1967): 28.

314. Wang, Zhao, and Zhao, "Zhongyang meishu xueyuan lishi, fulu," p. 103.

315. Interview with HH.