Sugar and the Origins of Modern Philippine Society "nsd0e7015"

Five Centrals, 1920-1934

1. Noel Deerr, The History of Sugar , 2 vols. (London: Chapman and Hall, 1949-50), 1:131, 490-91; SN 4 (1923): 157-58, 413; 7 (1926): 286; PFP , December 26, 1925, p. 25.

2. MT , March 9, 1919-June 21, 1920; MDB , March 4, 1920, p. 5; PFP , July 12, 1919, p. 16; June 11, 1921, pp. 8, 11; July 9, 1921, p. 9; SN · 1 (September 1919): 10-11, 17-23; 7 (1926): 205-6, 244-49, 409-10; 9 (1928): 72; PAR 18 (1925): 191; 19 (1926): 89.

3. Norman G. Owen, "Philippine Economic Development and American Policy: A Reappraisal," in Cornpadre Colonialism: Studies on the

Philippines under American Rule , ed. Norman G. Owen, Michigan Papers on South and Southeast Asia, no. 3 (Ann Arbor: Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, 1971), p. 110; MDB , January 1920; U.S. Congress, House, Annual Report of the Governor General, Philippine Islands, 1923, H. Doc. 485, 68th Cong., 2d sess., 1924, p. 149; SN 10 (1929): 159; 13 (1932): 81.

4. BIA 2403-71A; Philippine Islands, Department of Agriculture and Commerce, Philippine Statistical Review 2 (1935): 71.

5. Letter from George H. Fairchild, Manila, to Manuel Quezon, Manila, May 2, 1929, QP; SN 11 (1930): 305; PFP , March 30, 1912, pp. 2-3.

6. Information on Silay-Hawaiian comes from that company's annual reports for 1922 to 1934 located in the Hawaiian Sugar Planters Association Library in Honolulu.

7. Guilford L. Spencer and George P. Meade, Cane Sugar Handbook: A Manual for Cane Sugar Manufacturers and Their Chemists , 8th ed. (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1945), pp. 48-49.

8. Cesar Gamboa, "Hacienda Administration and Methods of Cultivation on Occidental Negros," in Cane (Provincial Carnival Association publication for the provincial carnival held in Bacolod, April 7 to 17, 1928); SN 5 (1924): 463-65; PFP , October 20, 1923, p. 8; SN 13 (1927): 490; 14 (1933): 96-97.

9. Yves Henry, Technical and Financial Conditions of the Production of Sugar in the Philippines , trans. Irwin McNiece (Manila: Philippine Sugar Association, 1929), p. 73; SN 4 (1923): 437-38; 6 (1925): 349, 361; PFP , January 31, 1920, p. 9; November 25, 1922, p. 9; PAR 14 (1921): 418-20; 16 (1923): 22-29; 18 (1925): 107-123; Philippine Islands, Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Philippine Journal of Agriculture 2 (1931): 163-177; letter from Jose Camus, Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Manila, to General Secretary, Institut International D'Agriculture, Rome, July 8, 1930, BIA, File 3287, incl. 12; A Handbook of the Sugar and Other Industries in the Philippines, 1953 (Manila: Sugar News Press, 1953), p. 16.

10. "Five crop data, 1920, 1921, 1922, 1923, 1924—Central del Carmen," Pampanga Sugar Mills, Del Carmen, n.d. (ca. 1925) (ms., Hawaiian Sugar Planters Association Library), tables 8, 9; Henry, Technical and Financial Conditions , p. 46; Alden Cutshall, "Trends of Philippine Sugar Production," Economic Geography 14 (April 1938): 155; SN 4 (1923): 663-72; 6 (1925): 69-70, 387-89; United States Tariff Commission, Sugar: Report to the President of the United States , Report, no. 73, 2d series (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1934), pp. 194-95.

11. Cutshall, "Trends," p. 156; SN 7 (1926): 7; Rafael Mateo Piguing, "The Philippine Sugar Industry" (Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State Col-

lege of Agriculture, 1935), 118; PFP , June 3, 1922, p. 9; September 17, 1927, 2-3, 8; M , July 6, 1926, p. 4.

12. Peter W. Stanley, A Nation in the Making: The Philippines and the United States, 1899-1921 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1974), pp. 35-48; Supervising Contract between Isabela Central and PNB, August 20, 1921, QP; MT , September 22, 1919, p. 1; PFP , April 23, 1921, p. 13; March 27, 1926, p. 26; MDB , August 25, 1921, p. 20; M , June 29, 1921, p. 1; letters from Venancio Concepcion, Manila, to Manuel Quezon, August 15, 1929, and November 16, 1931; letter from Venancio Concepcion, Manila, to Wenceslao, Trinidad, San Fernando, Pampanga, January 31, 1929; reply from Trinidad to Concepcion, February 2, 1929, QP. Concepcion spent two and a half years in jail and after several attempts to return to the sugar business failed, spent his last years dependent on the generosity of his friends in politics and in the sugar industry.

13. Annual Report on the Operations and Conditions of the Philippine National Bank for the Year 1925, pp. 3-6; Report from the Administrator General, PNB, to Governor-general Leonard Wood, July 10, 1922, pp. 2-4; letter from Governor-general Leonard Wood, Manila, to the President of the PNB, April 19, 1923; report from Emilio Montilla, President, Isabela Sugar Co., Isabela, N.O., to Governor-general Leonard Wood, February 13, 1923; letter from H. I. Shoemaker, General Manager, Isabela Sugar Co., to PNB President Wenceslao Trinidad, March 26, 1923; letter from E. W. Kopeke, Bacolod-Murcia Sugar Central, to D. M. Semple, Manager, Philippine Sugar Centrals Agency, Manila, July 12, 1923; report of Arthur Fischer and Wences1ao Trinidad to the Board of Directors, PNB, April 24, 1923, QP.

14. Francisco Varona, Negros: historia anecdótica de su riqueza y de sus hombres (Manila: General Printing Press, 1938), pp. 138-39.

15. Echaús still owed PNB P2,500,000 in 1930. The saga of Binalbagan Central is told in a wide variety of sources including M , June 24, 1915-March 7, 1930; MDB , January 3, 1920, p. 1; March 11, 1920, p. 5; PFP , June 25, 1921-August 14, 1926; SN 1-15 (1920-1934); and Isideria J. Ignacio, "A Study of the Cultural Contributions of the Three Sugar Centrals (Bacolod-Murcia Milling Company, Binalbagan-Isabela Sugar Company, and Victorias Milling Company) in Negros Occidental with the View to Propose Plans for Their Improvement" (M.A. thesis, Silliman University, 1954), pp. 21-22. In addition, Manuel Quezon, as president of the Philippine Senate and member of the PNB Board of Control, had a continuing interest in Binalbagan, and his papers contain many reports and

letters concerning the case. See, for example, Report of Gil Montilla, Governor of Negros Occidental, regarding the troubles at Binalbagan Central, February 1, 1924: "Resolution of the Board of Directors, Binalbagan Estate, Inc.," April 7, 1924; letter from Rafael Alunan, President and Manager of Bacolod-Murcia Milling Co., Bacolod, to Francisco Enage, President Pro-tem Philippine Senate, Manila, July 24, 1924; letter from Enrique Echaús, President, The Visayan General Supply Co., Manila, to the Members of the Board of Control, February 9, 1925; letter from Ben F. Wright, Insular Auditor, Manila, to Rafael Corpus, President PNB, Manila, October 27, 1925, QP.

16. SN 11 (1930): 409-10; TT , June 22, 1930, p. 7; M , November 19, 1926, p. 1.

17. Boston Transcript , December 13, 1920; PFP , March 17, 1923, p. 33; April 28, 1923, p. 9; SN 4 (1923): 85; "Extract from the Report of the Philippine National Bank," October 20, 1922; letter from Paredes and Buencamino, Attorneys, Manila, to the Board of Directors, PNB, May 10, 1923; letters from J. B. Hardon, Hayden, Stone and Company, Manila, to Governor-general Leonard Wood, Manila, December 15, 1925, and January 12, 1926, QP; M , July 31, 1925-September 16, 1927.

18. PFP , September 23, 1928, pp. 6, 8.

19. BIA, File 16979, File 27078, File 27685, incls. 1-12; File 21387, subject card, p. 27, incl. 14; File 24689, incls. 8, 11, 48, 78; File 23908, incl. 1; MT , June 1, 1901-July 11, 1920; PFP , January 6, 1912-July 5, 1924; SN 1 (1919): 13; 9 (1928): 206-7; MDB , June 23, 1921, p. 4; January 7, 1922, pp. 1, 3; TT , February 14, 1932, p. 7; letters between John Switzer and Manuel Quezon, Manila, New York, and San Mateo (California), January 7, 1918; July 23, 1931; September 2, 1931; January 1, 1934, QP.

20. Lewis E. Gleeck, The Manila Americans (1901-1964) (Manila: Carmelo and Bauermann, 1977), pp. 187-88; BIA, File 24689, incls. 8, 13, 55; File 16979, incl. 15; File 3037, incl. 38; File 25996; File 10523, incl. 29; MT , July 24, 1919, p. 1; July 27, 1919, p. 7; August 9, 1920, p. 4; letter from George Fairchild, Manila, to Governor-general Francis Burton Harrison, New York, April 16, 1919, QP.

21. Philippine Sugar Handbook, 1972 Edition (Manila: Sugar News Press, 1972), p. 8; BIA, File 28206; SN 10 (1929): 170; 13 (1932): 764-66; 14 (1933): 101-2; PFP , October 6, 1923, p. 9; September 21, 1929, p. 30; TT , May 17, 1930, p. 1; October 29, 1932, p. 1.

22. Ignacio, "Cultural Contributions," p. 18; MT , July 13, 1920, p. 8; August 6, 1920, p. 6; PFP , January 12, 1924, p. 30; M , December 14, 1920, p. 3; Handbook of the Philippine Sugar Industry , 2d ed. (Manila: Sugar News Press, 1929), pp. 236-41; letter from Chief of the Bureau of Insular Affairs F. L. Parker, Washington, to Philippine Trade Commissioner Frank McIntyre, Washington, January 20, 1931, BIA, File 28206, incl. 8A; SN 9 (1928): 8-15; 11 (1930): 360-62; TT , July 13, 1930, p. 19; pamphlet on

behalf of the Confederacion de Asociaciones y Plantadores de Carla Dulce, Inc., Manapla, N.O., to the visiting Members of the Congressional Mission, December 20, 1934, QP.

23. Roy A. Ballinger, A History of Sugar Marketing , Economic Research Service, Agricultural Economic Report, no. 197 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1971), p. 32; Luis E. Aguilar, Cuba 1933: Prologue to Revolution (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1972), pp. 41-42; Robert F. Smith, The United States and Cuba: Business and Diplomacy, 1917-1960 (New Haven: College and University Press, 1960), pp. 29-30; Theodore Friend, "The Philippine Sugar Industry and the Politics of Independence, 1929-1935," Journal of Asian Studies 22 (February 1963); idem, Between Two Empires: The Ordeal of the Philippines, 1929-1946 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1965), pp. 82-83; Garel A. Grunder and William E. Livezey, The Philippines and the United States (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1951), pp. 216-17; SN 3-15 (1922-34); PFP , January 12, 1923, pp. 26-27; February 6, 1927, pp. 34, 39; letter from John Switzer, New York, to Manuel Quezon, Washington, July 24, 1931, QP.

24. Michael Onorato, A Brief Review of American Interest in Philippine Development and Other Essays (Berkeley: McCutchan, 1968), pp. 113-22; Bernadita Reyes Churchill, The Philippine Independence Missions to the United States, 1919-1934 (Manila: National Historical Institute, 1983), pp. 87-116; John Switzer, A Square Deal for the Philippine Islands: A Series of Articles by John Switzer, Based Upon His Testimony Before the House Ways and Means Committee of the House of Representatives, February 25th, 1929 (New York: Philippine-American Chamber of Commerce, 1929).

25. SN 13 (1932): 269; 14 (1933): 202. See also cablegram from Jose Yulo, Manila, to Rafael Alunan, Washington, January 3, 1933, QP; TT , August 23, 1931, p. 5.

26. Statement of Amando Avanceña, The Mixed Mission, April 23, 1933, QP. See also PFP , January 25, 1930, p. 60; TT , March 8, 1932, pp. 1, 3.

27. Letter from Manuel Quezon, on shipboard to Hong Kong, to John Switzer, New York, October 18, 1931, QP. See also letter from Manuel Quezon, San Mateo, California, to Camilo Osias, Resident Commissioner, Washington, September 10, 1931; cablegram from Manuel Quezon, Manila, to Sergio Osmeña and Manuel Roxas, Washington, January 2, 1933, QP.

28. Ernesto D. Bohol, ed., Full Text of Hawes-Cutting-Hare Bill, Commented by Prominent Filipino Leaders and Foreigners (Manila: Loyal Press, 1934).

29. PFP , March 16, 1929, p. 28; TT , April 19, 1933, p. 1; October 13, 1933, p. 1; April 26, 1934, p. 3; Minutes of the Executive Committee of

the Philippine Sugar Association, February 12, 1934, QP; Harry B. Hawes, Philippine Uncertainty: An American Problem (New York: Century, 1932).

30. SN 13 (1932): 650-54; 14 (1933): 78, 195, 370-72; Friend, Between Two Empires , pp. 117-18. Benigno Aquino, Sr., is usually just associated with Central Tarlac; however, his first wife, Maria, was the sister of his friend Manuel Urquico, prominent Central Luzon businessman and a founder of, major investor in, and member of the board of Pasudeco (Nick Joaquin, The Aquinos of Tarlac: An Essay on History as Three Generations [Mandaluyong, Metro Manila: Cacho Hermanos, 1983], pp. 101-3).

31. Jack T. Turner, Marketing of Sugar , Indiana University School of Business, Bureau of Business Research Study, no. 38 (Homewood, Ill.: Richard D. Irwin, 1955), pp. 73-75; radiograms from Frank Parker, BIA, Washington, to Governor-general Frank Murphy, Manila, June 21, 22, 23, 1933, BIA, File 5483, incl. 27; TT , April 5, 1933, p. 3; SN 15 (1934): 205-8, 302, 355; radiogram from Creed Cox, BIA, Washington, to Governor-general Frank Murphy, Manila, September 26, 1933; Minutes of the Meeting of the Board of Trustees of the Philippine Sugar Association, Manila, September 29, 1933; Transcript of Testimony of Hon. Harry B. Hawes Representing the Philippine Sugar Association in the Hearings on the Proposed Marketing Agreement Under the Agricultural Adjustment Act, August 10 and 11, 1933; Report of Hon. Rafael Alunan to the Board of Trustees of the Philippine Sugar Association, July 22, 1933, QP; American-Philippine Trade Relations: A Memorandum for Hon. Thomas Walker Page, Chairman for Reciprocity Information, In Connection with Proposed Trade Agreement with Cuba. Submitted by Harry B. Hawes, U.S. Representative, Philippine Sugar Association (Washington: n.p., 1934). The bill was named after its main sponsors, Congressman Marvin Jones of Texas and Senator Edward Costigan of Colorado.

32. SN 15 (1934): 274-75, 350-51, 354-55; TT , May 26, 1934, pp. 1-2; June 23, 1934, p. 1; June 24, 1934, p. 1; Memorandum to the Trustees of the Philippine Sugar Association, April 3, 1934; Memorandum on the Allocation of the Sugar Quota from Amando Avanceña to Manuel Quezon, June 2, 1934; Memorandum from Manuel Quezon to Governor-general Frank Murphy, June 16, 1934; Memorandum on Crop Loans from PNB President Rafael Corpus, 1934, QP; M , June 19, 1934, p. 4.

33. Joshua Bernhardt, The Sugar Industry and the Federal Government: A Thirty Year Record (1917-47) (Washington, D.C.: Sugar Statistics Service, 1948), pp. 172-73, 187-88; TT , May 20, 1934-December 22, 1934; Minutes of the Executive Committee of the Philippine Sugar Association, Manila, June 4, 1934, QP; SN 15 (1934): 375-76.

34. SN 9 (1928): 4; 11 (1930): 668; 13 (1932): 392, 469-70; M , November 16, 1926, p. 1; April 22, 1932, p. 3; PFP , November 11, 1922, pp. 20-21; October 18, 1924, p. 2; TT , October 31, 1936, p. 3.

35. PFP , March 31, 1923, p. 6; SN 10 (1928): 429, 508-9; TT , May 10, 1931, p. 13; Ignacio, "Cultural Contributions," pp. 25-26; telegram from Jorge Vargas, Manila, to Rafael Alunan, Washington, May 29, 1929; letter from Wenceslao Trinidad, President PSA, to Manuel Quezon, Manila, March 2, 1932; letter from Earl B. Schwulst, Vice-president, PNB, Baguio, to Governor-general Dwight Davis, Baguio, April 20, 1931, QP.

36. TT , August 22, 1930, p. 1; April 10, 1931, p. 1; February 3, 1933, pp. 11-16; September 2, 1934, p. 1; M , February 12, 1926-February 17, 1933; SN 1-15 (1920-34); PFP , February 2, 1924, pp. 12-13; October 1, 1927, p. 28.

37. Quezon's correspondence, as well as local newspapers and yearbooks, carried constant information about political figures. See, for example, letter from Manuel Quezon, Manila, to Macario Arnedo, Apalit, Pampanga, May 29, 1934, QP; Cornejo's Commonwealth Directory of the Philippines , 2 vols. (Manila: Cornejo, 1939), 2:1592-93; Saravia Centennial Anniversary and Inauguration of the New Town Hall (souvenir program) (Saravia, Negros Occidental: n.p., 1959), pp. 1-2; Faustino P. Gutierrez, Ninu't Ninu qñg Capampañgan [Who's Who in Pampanga] (Manila: Catimawan, 1934), p. 4; TT , September 23, 1931, pp. 9-11. Magalona chaired the crucial assembly labor and immigration committee ( SN 14 [1933]: 470).

38. SN 5-15 (1924-34); TT , May 27, 1930, p. 1; PFP , January 12, 1924, p. 9; Minutes of the Executive Committee, PSA, February 10, 1934, p. 2; May 7, 1934, p. 2; Circular no. 170, February 27, 1934; Circular no. 185, April 27, 1934, for the. Trustees of PSA; letter from Pedro Vazquez, Acting President of Binalbagan Estate, Binalbagan, to Manuel Quezon, Manila, January 20, 1923, QP; "Estimated Amount of Taxes which the Philippine Sugar Industry Directly and Indirectly Pays Annually," in Documents and Papers on the Philippine Sugar Industry (1933), in the Hawaiian Sugar Planters Association Library, Honolulu; Baldomero T. Olivera, lose Yulo: The Selfless Statesman (Mandaluyong, Metro Manila: U.P.-Jorge B. Vargas Filipiniana Research Center, 1981), chaps. 4-9; M , May 24, 1931, p. 1.

Born in Bago, Negros Occidental, Yulo, a brother-in-law of Juan Araneta, worked in Manila and held sugar lands in Floridablanca. Ventura's government career ended when he clashed with Quezon over support for the Hare-Hawes-Cutting Bill, a bitter dispute that divided Pampanga's politicians and sealed the alliance between Quezon and Sotero Baluyut (press statement maligning Ventura by Manuel Quezon, QP; TT , May 12-November 21, 1933, passim).

39. PFP , January 25, 1913, p. 6; July 23, 1932, p. 57; SN 7 (1926): 82. One of the big misusers of PNB loans was Ricardo Nolan, an attorney from Bacolod (see Appendix D), who also happened to be a very vocal supporter of the initial idea of the government supplying loans to farmers.

40. Isobelo T. Crisostomo, Cory: Profile of a President (Quezon City: J. Kriz, 1986), pp. 6-8; list of (Pampangan) sugar-cane planters, 1920-35 owning from 500 to more than 1,000 hectares of land and milling upwards of 1 million to 6 million pounds of sugar, given to the author by Mariano A. Henson; PFP , November 3, 1928, p. 30; March 23, 1929, p. 19; SN 11 (1930): 753; 13 (1932): 443-44; 14 (1933): 33; Court of First Instance, Province of Pampanga, Registration of Title on Behalf of Manuel Quezon, June 23, 1927, QP; Benedict J. Tria Kerkvliet, The Huk Rebellion: A Study of Peasant Revolt in the Philippines (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1977), p. 55.

41. Thomas R. McHale, "The Sugar Industry of the Philippines in the 1970s," paper presented at the PDCP-UPIEDR Lecture Series, Manila, January 20, 1970, pp. 65-66.

42. Negrenses faced the anomalous situation in 1931 of having local muscovado sugar selling at a higher price than centrifugal ( M , December 8, 1931, p. 4). Information on leaseholding comes from ninety-four contracts contained in the notarial registers for Negros used in this chapter. PNA Notarios consulted had the following numbers: 39424, 39426, 39428, 39441, 39477, 39535, 39543, 39563, 39569, 39581, 39589, 39782, 39785, 39835, 39836, 39863, 39928, 39929, 39930, 39931, 39932, 40123, 41024. Registers for Pampanga used elsewhere were numbered 12230, 21099, 21100, 21105, 21106, 21107, 21108, 21140, 21220, 21221, 21222, 21223, 23463, 23590, 35135, 35144, 35146, 35148, 35150, 35184, 35186, 35188, 35192, 35226, 35236, 35262, 35590.

43. M , August 6, 1930, p. 2. Among those in Negros who answered an information questionnaire, 220 had been either straight duma'an (160) or a combination of duma'an and rice acsas (60); in contrast, only 22 sugar acsas and 15 who had been both duma'an and sugar acsas appeared in the survey. Furthermore, references to sugar acsas in the literature showed up only occasionally.

44. Richard John Gilbert, "The Introduction of American Capital into the Sugar Industry of the Philippines and Its Impact on the Pre-Existing Patterns of Land" (M.A. thesis, University of Hawaii at Manoa, 1967), p. 82; PFP , September 11, 1926, p. 36; SN 2 (1920): 486; 6 (1925): 641; 7 (1926): 38; M , April 6, 1926, p. 3; BIA, File 26782, incl. 5-B.

45. John T. Omohundro, Chinese Merchant Families in Iloilo: Commerce and Kin in a Central Philippine City (Quezon City and Athens, Ohio: Ateneo de Manila University Press and Ohio University Press, 1981), pp. 18-19; SN 7 (1926): 747-48; 15 (1934): 103; M , May 21, 1926, p. 4; PFP , September 9, 1922, p. 9; August 28, 1926, p. 28; July 29, 1932, p. 29; Annual Report of Stockholders by the Board of Directors of the Philippine National Bank, for the year ending 1925, QP; Notarios , Negros Occidental, Pampanga, PNA. Three smaller banks giving agricultural credit

were Bank of the Philippine Islands, Luzon Surety Company, and People's Bank and Trust Company.

46. Letter from PNB President Rafael Corpus, Manila, to Manuel Quezon, Manila, March 30, 1926, QP.

47. PFP , September 17, 1927, p. 61.

48. Notarios , Pampanga, PNA; SN 14 (1933): 94; 15 (1934): 740-41; TT , September 17, 1930, p. 12; MDB , May 19, 1922, p. 1; interview with Mariano A. Henson, Angeles, June 5, 1964.

The cooperative system at Arayat contrasts with the one in operation at Binalbagan at about the same time. There the hacenderos simply authorized the Binalbagan, Isabela Planters Association to sell stocks of sugar for them at the best price possible with no provisions for any financing (individual contracts registered as Document 39785, Notarios , Negros Occidental, PNA).

49. PFP , June 12, 1926,. p. 28; September 18, 1926, pp. 2, 26; January 1, 1927, pp. 54-55; TT , August 27, 1930, p. 1; letter from Paleriano Cuenco, Talisay, to Manuel Quezon, Manila, February 4, 1925; letter from Jose Ramos, President of the Bacolod-Murcia Planters Association, Manila, to the Board of Directors, PNB, Manila, August 2, 1929, QP; M , July 8, 1932, p. 1; SN 14 (1933): 155; 15 (1934): 610.

50. Letter from W. B. Charles, Bacolod, to James H. Franklin, A.B.F.M.S., New York, January 3, 1922, BMR. Census: 1939 , 1, pt. 3, Negros Occidental, pp. 33-38.

51. PFP , January 24, 1925, p. 2.

52. SN 15 (1934): 177; PFP , April 7, 1928, p. 32. Notarios , Negros Occidental, PNA, detailed ,the loans of planters, including car loans and second mortgages. Even the truly wealthy could end up in overwhelming debt. At the time of his death, Mariano Lacson Ledesma owed about P800,000 to PNB and Bachrach Motor Company, a debt his family found virtually impossible to pay (Memorandum to PNB from Rafael Lacson, March 5, 1930, QP). As a comparison, Negros Occidental, with an expanse of 3,125 square miles, possessed 242.1 miles of first-class roads for its 1,195 autos in 1930; meanwhile, Pampanga, with an area of only 823 square miles, had 126.4 miles of first-class roads for its 729 automobiles (BIA, File 2146, incl. 99).

53. The Pampanga Carnival Supplement published as part of the April 22, 1933, issue of the Tribune illustrates many points about culture in Pampanga. See also PFP, June 26, 1920, p. 22; October 3, 1925, p. 10; January 9, 1926, pp. 12-'13; TT , August 23, 1933, p. 8; SN 6 (1925), no. 6, frontispiece; Nineteen Thirty-five Directory and Souvenir: Agricultural, Commercial, Industrial, and Professional Guidebook for the Provinces of Pampanga and Tarlac and the Cities of Manila and Baguio (Manila: Mariano E. Samia, 1935-36), 1:16-36.

54. SN 10 (1929): 128-29.

55. Interview with Ramon Ramos, Bacolod, May 27, 1970.

56. Aside from the agricultural debt, no other sugar subject attracted more attention in local periodicals than labor shortages. See, for example, SN 1 (1920): 9; 11 (1930): 231; PFP, May 5, 1923, p. 11; September 21, 1929, p. 41; M , April 15, 1932, p. 2; TT , February 5, 1933, p. 12; October 20, 1933, p. 11.

57. The description of sacada life derives from in-depth interviews I conducted in Bugasong, Tibiao, and Culasi, Antique; during late June 1970 with a group of migrant workers over sixty who traveled to Negros during the central era. See also Compilation of Committee Reports for the Fifth Annual Convention of the Philippine Sugar Association, Manila, P.I., September Twelfth to Seventeenth, 1927 , pp. 150-51; TT , October 4, 1931, p. 13; December 17, 1932, pp. 46-47; BIA, File 2121, incl. 15; Rafael Alunan, Plaintiff, vs Baltazar Necesito, Pio V. Autojay, and Federico Javier [contratistas], Defendants, Court of First Instance, Philippines, 22d Judicial District, Bacolod, QP; SN 7 (1926): 136-43, 747; 8 (1927): 981.

A duma'an from Saravia, sixty-two-year-old Leopoldo Gumayao, in-dicated that in the early 1920s, although he owned rice land in Capiz, Panay, he earned more going to labor for wages on Negros; however, several sacadas noted that work in Negros was much harder than in Antique. It appears that wages for sacadas went down from P0.90 to P0.60 per day after 1930, but the evidence is by no means solid, given the way contratistas kept the books for sacadas. In general, those sacadas who eventually went on their own to Negros fared much better than those who worked for a contratista ( M , August 22, 1924, p. 4; March 11, 1932, p. 2; July 1, 1932, p. 4).

58. SN 10 (1929): 127-29. In general, Sugar News extolled the workers' benefits, while Makinaugalingon pointed out the numerous serious industrial accidents.

59. SN 5 (1924): 697. Information on sugar tenant farming in Pampanga comes mainly from an information questionnaire given to 195 casamac in 1970 in Pampanga and from Higinio D. Mendoza, ''The Small Sugar Planters in Pampanga" (1928), BS; Philippine Islands, Bureau of Labor, The Activities of the Bureau of Labor (Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1930), pp. 119-20. See also PAR 18 (1925): 318; SN 6 (1925): 20-25; 8 (1927): 830.

60. Census: 1939 , 1, pt. 3, Negros Occidental, pp. 4-5; pt. 4, Pampanga, p. 5, Tarlac, pp. 3-4. Total Philippine population grew from 10,314,310 in 1918 to 16,000,303 in 1939.

61. Alfred W. McCoy, "A Queen Dies Slowly: The Rise and Decline of Iloilo City," in Philippine Social History: Global Trade and Local Transformations , ed. Alfred W. McCoy and Ed. C. de Jesus (Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1982), pp. 326-46; PFP , March 31, 1923, pp. 4-6; May 3, 1924, pp. 4-5; August 14, 1926, p. 50; M , February

2, 1923-July 10, 1934; SN 15 (1934): 103; TT , May 21, 1933, p. 4; letter from W. B. Charles, Cadiz, to J. H. Franklin, A.B.F.M.S., New York, May 7, 1926; open letter from Harry W. Munger, Iloilo City, to Friends in the United States, January 10, 1934, BMR.

62. TT , May 24, 1930, p. 1; July 25, 1931, p. 3; M , December 29, 1921-January 30, 1934; PFP , June 23, 1923, p. 48; November 28, 1925, p. 57; December 3, 1927, p. 7; letters from May Coggins, Bacolod, to Miss McVeigh, A.B.F.M.S., New York, January 11, 1925, and February 12, 1925; letter from W. B. Chlarles to his home congregation, July 31, 1923, BMR; Doreen G. Fernandez, The Iloilo Zarzuela; 1903-1930 (Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1978), pp. 141-63.

63. Evangelina Hilario-Lacson, Kapampangan Writing: A Selected Compendium and Critique (Manila: National Historical Institute, 1984), p. 55. See also Sol H. Gwekoh, Diosdado Macapagal: Triumph over Poverty (Manila: G and G Enterprises, 1962), pp. 20-21; PFP , March 25, 1922, p. 9; December 29, 1928, p. 17; TT , August 27, 1930-January 22, 1933; BIA, File 11764, incl. 4; Nineteen Thirty-five Directory , pp. 16-26.

64. M , August 17, 1921-June 19, 1934; PFP , November 17, 1923, p. 9; TT, May 24, 1931, p. 2; August 7, 1932, p. 12; August 26, 1932, p. 11.

65. M , 1920-1934; PFP , September 17, 1921, p. 11; December 17, 1932, 56-57; MDB , September 8, 1922, p. 2; Philippine Islands, Bureau of Commerce and Industry, Commercial Handbook of the Philippine Islands, 1924 (Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1924), p. 168.

66. The participation dispute was reported in the pages of the Tribune (April 19, 1930-February 28, 1934), Makinaugalingon (February 9, 1931-April 26, 1932), Sugar News (vols. 11,14, 15), and the Quezon papers. See, in particular, letter from Governor Agustin Ramos, Bacolod, to the Chief of the Executive Bureau, Manila, April 5, 1929; letter from Manuel Quezon, Manila, to Governor-general Dwight Davis, Manila, July 10, 1930; letter from Placido Mapa, Talisay-Silay Milling Co., Talisay, to Manuel Quezon, Manila, December 28, 1932; letter from Jose Escaler, President of the Agricultural Association of Pampanga, San Fernando, to Manuel Quezon, Manila, December 26, 1921, QP; TT , February 25, 1934, p. 8; interview with Pasudeco employee Leoncio Nucum, San Fernando, Pampanga, July 19, 1970; SN 11 (1930): 419-20; 14 (1933): 628-32.

67. PFP , March 1, 1924, pp. 2, 7; April 5, 1924, pp. 2, 7, 15; August 6, 1927, p. 28; TT , August 14, 1931, p. 2; Manuel Gatbonton, Ing Candawe (n.p.: n.p., 1933), p. 72.

68. Philippine newspapers covered Intrencherado in many articles from November 1925 to as late as the mid-1930s. Particularly useful sources included comments by former adherents Valentin Cemira, Geronimo Ragasa, Feliciano Tabligan, and Cornelio Mendoza. See also David R. Sturtevant, Popular Uprisings in the Philippines, 1840-1940 (Ithaca,

N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1976), chap. 8; M , June 21, 1927, p. 2; July 5, 1927, p. 4; PFP , May 21, 1927, pp. 2, 25, 27, 36-37, 40.

69. The Brender story appeared in issues of Makinaugalingon from July 24 to October 19, 1928. See also Alfred W. McCoy, " Baylan : Animist Religion and Philippine Peasant Ideology," in Moral Order and the Question of Change: Essays on Southeast Asian Thought , ed. David K. Wyatt and Alexander Woodside, Monograph Series, no. 24 (New Haven: Yale University Southeast Asian Studies, 1982); PFP , July 7, 1928, p. 28; August 18, 1928, p. 28; July 27, 1929, p. 28; M , April 3, 1925.

70. McCoy, "Queen," pp. 338-39; Serafin E. Macaraig, Social Problems (Manila: Educational Supply Company, 1929), pp. 407-8; M , August 4, 1922-January 8, 1926; PFP , October 14, 1922-May 19, 1933. Because Quezon became involved, numerous letters in his files refer to the two as well; see, in particular, letter from Angel Marin, Delegate General, KSI, Bacolod, to Manuel Quezon, Manila, October 21, 1923; letter from Rafael Alunan, Bacolod, to Manuel Quezon, Manila, December 13, 1924; letter from Representative Hermenegildo Villanueva, Bacolod, to Manuel Quezon, Manila, January 18, 1925, QP. Further information came from interview questionnaires for twenty-eight members of KSI, ten members of Mainawa-on, and three members of a smaller mutual aid society, Magbinuligay (Togetherness). Marin eventually pleaded guilty to libeling Judge Eduardo Gutierrez-David. Mainawa-on listed among its sponsors Representative Manuel Roxas, later Speaker of the House of Representatives.

71. During the era, Makinaugalingon and Sugar News , in various issues, noted at least six other mutual aid groups operating in Negros. In 1982, while visiting Kabankalan, I became acquainted with the Half Century Club, Inc., an organization that supplied P1,000 to the relatives of deceased members.

72. On the current state of private armies on Negros, see Newsweek , August 10, 1987, p. 44.

73. M , January 6, 1931-May 6, 1931; TT, January 9, 1931-February 28, 1931; SN 12 (1931): 75, 139-40. On other labor actions see McCoy, "Queen," pp. 333-44; TT, January 20, 1932, p. 1; M , November 16, 1923, p. 1; March 10, 1930, p. 1; February 23, 1931, p. 1; PFP , June 4, 1927, p. 28. One of the few positive results of the strike from labor's point of view was the replacement in the next governor's election of the hostile Ramos by the more neutral, rather ineffective Isaac Lacson.

74. William H. Mayfield, "The Development of Organized Labor in the Philippines" (M.A. thesis, University of the Philippines, 1956), pp. 8-10, 20-21; "The Peasant War in the Philippines," Philippine Social Sciences and Humanities Review 23 (June-December 1958): 379; Dante C. Simbulan, "The Socialist Movement in the Philippines'' (M.A. thesis, University of the Philippines, 1961), pp. 22-28; Kenneth K. Kurihara,

Labor in the Philippines (Palo Alto, Calif.: American Council, Institute of Pacific Relations, 1945), pp. 60-63; cable from Manuel Quezon and Sergio Osmeña, Manila, to Secretary of War Henry Stimson, Washington, July 20, 1930, QP. On Tan Malacca's sojourn to the Philippines see PFP , August 20, 1927-September 24, 1927.

75. Kerkvliet, Huk Rebellion , pp. 35-51; Conrado S. Sabelino, "A Study of the Legal (or Parliamentary) Struggle of the Communist Movement in the Philippines" (M.A. thesis, University of the Philippines, 1958), pp. 18-19; Serafin E. Macaraig, An Introduction to Sociology , ed. Marcelo Tangco (Manila: University of the Philippines, 1948), pp. 253-55; Harlan R. Crippen, "Philippine Agrarian Unrest: Historical Backgrounds," Science and Society 10 (Fall 1946): 345; interview with Judge Wenceslao Ortega, Baliwag, Bulacan, June 21, 1970; interview with Ramon Permato, Baliwag, Bulacan, June 21, 1970; interview with Casto Alejandrino, Camp Crame, Quezon City, May 11, 1970; Gatbonton, Ing Candawe , p. 29; Philippine Islands, Bureau of Labor, Quarterly Labor Bulletin 4 (1922), nos. 15-16, 18-19; Katherine Mayo, The Isles of Fear: The Truth about the Philippines (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1924), pp. 42-46; PFP , September 8, 1923, p. 9; March 15, 1924, p. 6; TT , June 19, 1931, pp. 1, 14; August 10, 1933, p. 14; June 10, 1934, p. 11; Philippines Herald , June 8, 1932.

76. MT , April 23, 1923, p. 4. See also TT , November 8, 1932, p. 2; interview with Peregrino Taruc, Camp Crame, Quezon City, June 19, 1970; interview with Ernesto V. Santos, Philippine Sugar Institute, Quezon City, June 8, 1970; SN 6 (1925): 182.

77. In comparison, Negros Occidental's density rose from 127 per square mile to 264, some 120 percent; however, agricultural hectarage also went up, from 110,256 to 219,436, or about 100 percent, at the same time ( Census: 1918 1:219, 233.; 3:336; Census: 1939, Real Property , pp. 398, 446).

78. Philippine Islands, Bureau of Labor, Labor: Bulletin of the Bureau of Labor 8 (March 1927): 83; Kerkvliet, Huk Rebellion , pp. 40-41; tenant interviews, 1964, 1970.

79. PFP , December 23, 1922, pp. 46, 54, 56; November 3, 1923, p. 40; November 8, 1924, pp. 44-45; interview with Pedro Rueda, Del Carmen, San Fernando, Pampanga, July 31, 1970; interview with Pedro Pelayo, Angeles, June 14, 1964; interview with Sotero Garcia, Angeles, June 21, 1964; TT , January 6, 1933, p. 9; August 29, 1933, pp. 1, 11; Gatbonton, Ing Candawe , pp. 67-68; cable from Serviliano Ibanez, Secretary General of KM, San Fernando, to Manuel Quezon, Manila, December 23, 1923, QP. Two other small antitenant associations were Sapni ning Lahi (Companions of the Race) in Magalang and Batung Maputi (White Stone) (Fausto F. Gonzalez Sioco, "The Cause of Communism in the Philippines," Living

Age 360 [1941]: 548-49; interview with Gregorio Briones, Angeles, November 3, 1970; interview with Gonzalo Pangilinan, Arayat, July 11, 1970).

80. Mayo, p. 43; HDP, Barrio Baliti, San Fernando, pp. 30-31.

81. TT , January 17, 1933-June 23, 1934; interview with Jose Santos Cuyugan, San Fernando, Pampanga, July 17, 1970.

82. PFP , November 5, 1927, p. 28; December 17, 1927, pp. 10-13, 60-61; October 27, 1928, p. 28; SN 8 (1927): 938-40; TT , April 24, 1930, p. 1; Macaraig, Social Problems , pp. 252-53.

83. TT , February 12, 1933, p. 13; June 2, 1933, p. 8; interview with Casto Alejandrino, Camp Crame, Quezon City, May 18, 1970.

84. Interview with Quirino Abad Santos, San Fernando, Pampanga, August 2, 1970; Ramon C. Aquino, A Chance to Die: A Biography of Jose Abad Santos, Late Chief Justice of the Philippines (Quezon City: Alemar-Phoenix, 1967), pp. 3-13, 33; Gutierrez, Ninu't Ninu , p. 36; interview with Roberto Toledo, III, Floridablanca, August 15, 1970; interview with Alfredo Ganzon, Angeles, June 5, 1964; Florence Horn, Orphans of the Pacific, the Philippines (New York: Reynal and Hitchcock, 1941), pp. 112-13; PFP , June 19, 1909, p. 12; MT , April 8, 1919, p. 2; June 7, 1919, p. 7; TT , August 5, 1932, p. 13; August 19, 1932, p. 8; Simbulan, "Socialist Movement," pp. 138-39; Directory of the Philippine Columbian Association, Pasay City, 1920; letters between Pedro Abad Santos, San Fernando, Pampanga, and Doctor Eliseo Santos, Manila, October 26, 1923; November 1, 1923, QP; Protocolos 1930, 1938, Notarios 4911, 5924, 6142, 7094, 10818, 10838, 23596, 23598, 23601, Pampanga, PNA.

85. Minutes of the Extraordinary Session of the Municipal Council of San Fernando, Pampanga, January 24, 1918, Municipal President Antonio Abad Santos presiding; miscellaneous correspondence concerning Quirino Abad Santos, August 20, 1922-December 10, 1932, QP; interview with Casto Alejandrino, Camp Crame, Quezon City, April 12, 1970; interview with Luis Taruc, Ateneo de Manila, Quezon City, June 16, 1970; interview with former representative Emilio Cortes, Manila, August 3, 1970; Antonio S. Tan, The Ideology of Pedro Abad Santos' Socialist Party (Quezon City: Asian Center, University of the Philippines, 1984), p. 3; Mariano A. Henson, Pampanga and Its Towns (A.D. 1300-1965) , 4th ed. (Angeles: By the Author, 1965), p. 77. I borrow the term "conventional politician," with its meaning of nonradical representative of entrenched interests, from Renato Constantino: see his The Making of a Filipino: A Story of Philippine Colonial Politics (Quezon City: Malaya Books, 1969), pt. 1.

86. BIA, File 7252, incls. 1-26; PFP , January 18, 1919, p. 9; MT , December 28, 1919, p. 1; Churchill, Independence Missions , p. 429; List of Members of the Independence Commission, August 26, 1919; letter from Pedro Abad Santos, San Fernando, Pampanga, to Manuel Quezon, Manila, July 22, 1933, QP; Ing Catala [The Press] (San Fernando, Pam-

panga), July 5, 1930; TT , July 25, 1933, pp. 1, 8; September 26, 1933, p. 11.

87. James S. Allen, The Radical Left on the Eve of War: A Political Memoir (Quezon City: Foundation for Nationalist Studies, 1985), p. 74.

88. Ibid., p. 81.

87. James S. Allen, The Radical Left on the Eve of War: A Political Memoir (Quezon City: Foundation for Nationalist Studies, 1985), p. 74.

88. Ibid., p. 81.

89. Simbulan, "Socialist Movement," pp. 28-35, 142-43; "The Huks in Retrospect: A Failed Bid for Power," Solidarity 102 (1985): 64-74; SN 8 (1927): 500; 10 (1929): 365; Uldarico S. Baclagon, Lessons from the Huk Campaigns in the Philippines (Manila: M. Colcol, 1956), pp. 255-60, 262-64.

90. SN 11-15 (1930-34); PFP , September 21, 1930, p. 43; M , April 13; 1934, p. 2; TT , August 25, 1931-July 1, 1934; Annual Reports of the Philippine Sugar Association (Manila: n.p., 1932), p. 15.