The Origins of Modernism in Russian Architecture "nsd0e6509"

Chapter Six— Modernism Reconsidered: Style and Ideology in the Neoclassical Revival

1. "Arkhitekturnaia letopis'." Apollon , 1911, no. 11:38.

2. During this same period in Europe, the moderne in its various manifestations (Secession, art nouveau, etc.) had begun to wane, particularly after the Turin Decorative Art exhibition of 1902. For a summary of responses to the decline, see Eduard F. Sekler, Josef Hoffman (Princeton, 1985), pp. 108-9. break

3. V. G. Lisovskii, I. A. Fomin , (Leningrad, 1979), pp. 10-11.

4. Catherine Cooke, "Shekhtel in Kelvingrove and Mackintosh on the Petrovka," Scottish Slavonic Review 10 (1988): 196; and William Craft Brumfield, "The Decorative Arts in Russian Architecture, 1900-1907," Journal of Decorative and Propaganda Arts 5 (1987): 20-22.

5. "Moskovskii klassitsizm," Mir iskusstva , 1904, no. 7: 187.

6. The title of the journal ( Starye gody ) itself indicates retrospective, elegiac sympathies; it published primarily historical articles and memoirs of the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. Until its demise in 1904, Mir iskusstva showed sympathy to both the new style and the aesthetic revival of neoclassicism.

7. "Istoricheskaia vystavka arkhitektury v S-Peterburge," Starye gody , July-September 1908:578.

8. Istoriia russkogo iskusstva , vol. 3 (Petersburg, 1909). For comment on the exhibit and its legacy, see Lisovskii, I. A. Fomin , pp. 38-39. The lavishly illustrated volume published in conjunction with the exhibit contained an introduction by Aleksandr Benois, a historical survey by L. V. Rudnitskii, and biographical entries on the architects by Fomin: Istoricheskaia vystavka arkhitektury (Petersburg, 1911).

9. Elena A. Borisova and Tatiana P. Kazhdan, Russkaia arkhitektura kontsa XIX-nachala XX veka (Moscow, 1971), p. 169.

10. Photographs, including details of Kuznetsov's sculpture, were published in Ezhegodnik Obshchestva arkhitektorov-khudozhnikov , no. 4 (1909), pp. 66-73.

11. Iurii Rokh [Georgii Lukomskii], "Novoe stroitel'stvo v S.-Peterburge," Apollon , 1909, no. 1:14. That the indefatigable Lukomskii wrote both under a pseudonym and under his own name in Apollon gave the impression that the major Russian cultural journal had two architectural critics, in addition to guest commentators—an indication of the significance placed on architecture in the classical aesthetic revival. Lukomskii acknowledged his authorship of the Rokh articles (in the first three issues of Apollon for 1909) in a note at the conclusion of his article "Novyi Peterburg," Apollon , 1913, no. 2:38.

12. [Georgii Lukomskii], "Novoe stroitel'stvo v S.-Peterburge," p. 17.

13. Ibid.

12. [Georgii Lukomskii], "Novoe stroitel'stvo v S.-Peterburge," p. 17.

13. Ibid.

14. E. E. Kruze analyzes the growth of Petersburg's banks at the turn of the century in "Transport, torgovlia, kredit," in B. M. Kochakov, ed., Ocherki istorii Leningrada , vol. 3, Period imperializma i burzhuazno-demokraticheskikh revoliutsii (Moscow-Leningrad, 1956), pp. 89-97. In English see Alfred Rieber, Merchants and Entrepreneurs in Imperial Russia (Chapel Hill, N. C., 1982), pp. 364-69. For a recent overview of the development of Petersburg in this period, see Karl Schlogel, Jenseits des Grossen Oktober: Das Laboratorium der moderne Petersburg, 1909-1921 (Berlin, 1988), with particular reference to bank construction, pp. 55, 181.

15. See the photographs of the Siberian Trade Bank in Ezhegodnik Obshchestva arkhitektorov-khudozhnikov , no. 5 (1910), pp. 44-48.

16. For a brief survey of the career of Peretiatkovich, see B. M. Kirikov, "Mar'ian Mar'ianovich Peretiatkovich," Stroitel'stvo i arkhitektura Leningrada , 1973, no. 1:30-31. See also the obituary by G. Kosmachevskii in Zodchii , 1916, no. 23:219-20.

17. Vasilii Kurbatov, "O stile i o lozhnikh stiliakh," Zodchii , 1908, no. 14:124.

18. "Eshche o stile," Zodchii , 1908, no. 15:134.

19. Ibid.

18. "Eshche o stile," Zodchii , 1908, no. 15:134.

19. Ibid.

20. Information on the planning of the New Petersburg project is drawn from a technical report by the noted Petersburg civil engineer Aleksandr Montag: "Izmenenie plana ostrova Golodaia," in Zodchii , 1915, no. 49:510; and from Georgii Lukomskii, "O postroika Novogo Peterburga," Zodchii , 1912, no. 52:519-21.

21. Kurbatov, "O stile i o lozhnikh stiliakh," p. 125.

22. Lukomskii, "O postroika Novogo Peterburga," pp. 520-21.

23. Ibid., p. 521.

24. Ibid.

22. Lukomskii, "O postroika Novogo Peterburga," pp. 520-21.

23. Ibid., p. 521.

24. Ibid.

22. Lukomskii, "O postroika Novogo Peterburga," pp. 520-21.

23. Ibid., p. 521.

24. Ibid.

25. Ivan Fomin, "Proekt zastroiki territorii Tuchkova buiana," Arkhitekturno-khudozhestvennyi ezhenedelnik , 1915, no. 49:469-74.

26. Competition announcement for the First Russian Insurance Company apartment building on Kamennoostrovskii Prospekt, Zodchii , 1910, no. 30:318.

27. "Dom Pervogo Rossiiskogo strakhovogo obshchestva," Zodchii , 1913, no. 14:167.

28. Ibid.

27. "Dom Pervogo Rossiiskogo strakhovogo obshchestva," Zodchii , 1913, no. 14:167.

28. Ibid.

29. A number of Shchuko's sketches appeared in Ezhegodnik Obshchestva arkhitektorov-khudozhnikov , no. 2 (1907), pp. 142-45, as well as in other issues of this annual. Although Shchuko's Italian exhibition pavilions had less effect on his domestic work than Shekhtel's Glasgow pavilions did on his, they were among the most finely conceived of Shchuko's neoclassical revival projects. Lukomskii noted that the Rome pavilion "beautifully and calmly expresses the majesty of Russia and reveals our 'Europeanism'" ("Po Italii: Arkhitekturnye vpechatleniia," Zodchii , 1911, no. 37:385). Not all Russian opinion was favorable, however; see A. D. Alekseeva, ed., Russkaia khudozhestvennaia kul'tura kontsa XIX-nachala XX veka, 1908-1917 , (Moscow, 1980), 4:342-43. The standard monograph on continue

Shchuko is Tatiana Slavina, Vladimir Shchuko (Leningrad, 1978).

30. Georgii Lukomskii, "Novyi Peterburg: Mysli o sovremennom stroitel'stve," Apollon , 1913, no. 2:24.

31. Georgii Lukomskii, "Neo-klasitsizm v arkhitekture Peterburga," Apollon , 1914, no. 5:10.

32. Lukomskii, "Novyi Peterburg," p. 25.

33. Vasilii Kurbatov, "Upadok ili smert'?" Zodchii , 1910, no. 49:486.

34. Georgii Lukomskii, "Arkhitekturnye vkusy sovremennosti," Trudy IV s"ezda russkikh zodchikh (Petersburg, 1911), p. 28. A similar attack against "excessive" individualism appeared in Lukomskii's "Novyi Peterburg," p. 9.

35. Lukomskii, "Arkhitekturnye vkusy sovremennosti," p. 32.

36. Tamanov's design for the Shcherbatov apartment house, located on a segment of the Garden Ring, was extensively photographed in Ezhegodnik Obshchestva arkhitektorov-khudozhnikov , no. 7 (1912), pp. 123-27. The neoclassical interior design for Prince Shcherbatov's own apartment within the building was the focus of an even more lavish photographic display in the same annual, no. 9 (1914), pp. 140-49. The Velikovskii design appeared in Moskovskii arkhitekturnyi mir , no. 1, (1912), p. 5.

37. Lukomskii, "Arkhitekturnye vkusy sovremennosti," p. 31.

38. Ibid., p. 34.

37. Lukomskii, "Arkhitekturnye vkusy sovremennosti," p. 31.

38. Ibid., p. 34.

39. For a description of the Rozenshtein project, see E. K. Ivanova and I. Z. Maseev, "Proekty, sozvuchnye vremeni," Stroitel'stvo i arkhitektura Leningrada , 1981, no. 5:35.

40. The apartments were designed by Rozenshtein with all the latest conveniences, including gas stoves, central heating, and a garage for automobiles. See Ivanova and Maseev, p. 36. Belogrud at the time was employed by the E. I. Gontskevich firm of contractors, which built the Rozenshtein buildings as well as other apartment houses in the area of Bolshoi Prospekt. See S. F. Leont'eva, "Romanticheskie iskaniia: Zametki o tvorchestve A. E. Belogruda," Leningradskaia panorama , 1986, no. 2:35.

41. No. 77 Bolshoi Prospekt originally had a seventh, "penthouse," floor that used the attic arcade as a form of loggia. See the detailed photographs following p. 18 of Lukomskii's "Neo-klasitsizm v arkhitekture Peterburga." Rozenshtein's solid engineering enabled the building to survive a bomb explosion nearby during the siege of Leningrad, and as a result of restoration work—supervised by Rozenshtein himself—the top floor was eliminated, and the arcade and statuary were supported from behind by metal braces. Indeed, to judge by the facade sketch published in Ezhegodnik Obshchestva arkhitektorov-khudozhnikov , no. 8 (1911), p. 52, this open arcade corresponds to the architect's original intention.

42. See Belogrud's later project sketches in Leont'eva, "Romanticheskie iskaniia," p. 35.

43. Lukomskii, "Neo-klasitsizm v arkhitekture Peterburga," p. 19.

44. Lukomskii, "Novyi Peterburg," p. 22.

45. For a survey of this work, see Lisovskii, I. A. Fomin , pp. 43-47. All these projects were photographed for Ezhegodnik Obshchestva arkhitektorov-khudozhnikov : the Shakhovskaia interior in no. 6 (1911), pp. 106-10; the Obolenskii house in no. 8 (1913), pp. 196-99; the Gagarin estate in no. 9 (1914), pp. 151-54.

46. Shmidt's work on the original design and his subsequent replacement by Fomin are noted in I. G. Tokareva, "V poiskakh 'novogo stilia,'" Leningradskaia panorama , 1987, no. 8:35.

47. For a description of the interior decoration, see V. A. Vitiazeva, Kamennyi Ostrov (Leningrad, 1975), pp. 147-49. The importance of the Polovtsev mansion as the summa of the neoclassical revival is indicated by its extensive photographic coverage in the major journals. Lukomskii's "Novyi Peterburg" (in Apollon ) included four photographs of the house; fourteen more, including many views of the interior, appeared in Ezhegodnik Obshchestva arkhitektorov-khudozhnikov , no. 11 (1916), pp. 95-109; and Zodchii published a lyrical view in the illustrated supplement to its 1916 volume.

48. V. A. Vitiazeva, Nevskie ostrova (Leningrad, 1986), p. 118.

49. For a detailed analysis of the design and decoration of the Abamalek-Lazarev house, see Lisovskii, I. A. Fomin , pp. 53-60. Several photographs appeared in Ezhegodnik Obshchestva arkhitektorov-khudozhnikov , no. 11 (1916), pp. 110-16.

50. Lisovskii, I. A. Fomin , pp. 61-68. Photographs of Fomin's designs for these projects appeared, as usual, in major architectural publications, particularly Ezhegodnik Obshchestva arkhitektorov-khudozhnikov .

51. Lukomskii, "Novyi Peterburg," pp. 26-27.

52. After Ohl traveled to Italy in 1914, he too turned to Renaissance interpretations of classical themes. Although the example of other Petersburg Renaissance stylists was clearly in evidence, Ohl's neoclassical work before 1914 derived from the Empire style—or from Petrine classicism. For a discussion of the Belozerskii house in the context of Ohl's other work of the period, see G. D. Bykova, Andrei Ol ' (Leningrad, 1976), pp. 31-37.

53. Vitiazeva, Kamennyi Ostrov , pp. 137-38.

54. Borisova and Kazhdan, Russkaia arkhitektura , p. 177. break

55. For a view of the Tarasovs by a close acquaintance of the family, see Pavel A. Buryshkin, Moskva kupecheskaia (New York, 1954), pp. 200-202.

56. Ibid., p. 201. Zholtovskii altered the Palladian model by treating the second story in a lighter (rather than heavier) manner and by using a system of proportional relations derived from the Palace of the Doges, which he had measured during his trip to Italy. See "I. V. Zholtovskii," in Zodchie Moskvy: XX vek , ed. M. I. Astaf'eva-Dlugach and Iu. P. Volshok (Moscow, 1988), p. 50.

55. For a view of the Tarasovs by a close acquaintance of the family, see Pavel A. Buryshkin, Moskva kupecheskaia (New York, 1954), pp. 200-202.

57. Evgenii Lanceray was affiliated with the World of Art movement, while Nivinskii acquired a reputation as Moscow's leading "architectural" painter. Like Fomin's houses in Petersburg, the Tarasov mansion was extensively photographed in the architectural press, and a series of exterior and interior views was included in Ezhegodnik Obshchestva arkhitektorov-khudozhnikov , no. 8 (1913), pp. 83-91. The house was also the subject of a richly illustrated article "Ital'ianskii palatstso v Moskve," in Moskovskii arkhitekturnyi mir , 1912, no. 1:85-88.

58. Georgii Lukomskii, "Novosti arkhitekturnoi zhizni," Zodchii , 1910, no. 6:56.

59. For a description of Nikolai Riabushinskii's colorful life, see Bowlt, "Nikolai Ryabushinsky: Playboy of the Eastern World," Apollo , December 1973:487-88. Photographs of the interior and exterior of the house appeared in Ezhegodnik Moskovskogo arkhitekturnogo obshchestva , no. 2 (1910-1911), pp. 11-14.

60. A brief survey of the Vtorov clan is contained in Buryshkin, Moskva kupecheskaia , pp. 197-200. Vtorov continued to live in the house for a short period after the revolution but was shot in May 1918 "under mysterious circumstances" that may have involved one of his relatives. In any event the Moscow Soviet permitted a public funeral, attended by a large and respectful crowd that included workers' delegations from Vtorov's various textile factories. In 1934 the house was converted to the American ambassador's residence.

61. The innovative work of Ivanov-Schitz has received little attention in Soviet scholarship. Photographs of his building for the Merchants' Club were included in Ezhegodnik Moskovskogo arkhitekturnogo obshchestva , no. 1 (1909), pp. 32-34; and in Moskovskii arkhitekturnyi mir , 1912, no. 1:41.

62. See Moskovskii arkhitekturnyi mir , 1913, no. 2:86-87; and 1914, no. 3:31, 34.

63. See Iu. S. Iaralov and S. M. Zemtsov, eds., Zodchie Moskvy XV-XIX vv . (Moscow, 1981), pp. 292-96. The museum was originally named after Alexander III, although the government provided only 200,000 rubles toward its construction, in comparison with over 2 million from Nechaev-Maltsev. Now named in honor of Aleksandr Pushkin, the museum is the subject of an exhaustive study based on Klein's correspondence with Tsvetaev: I. E. Danilova, ed., Gosudarstvennyi muzei izobrazitel'nykh iskusstv imeni A. S. Pushkina: Istoriia sozdaniia muzeia v perepiske professora I. V. Tsvetaeva s arkhitektorom R. I. Kleinom i drugikh dokumentakh, 1898-1912 , 2 vols. (Moscow, 1977). Photographs of the museum accompanied the article "Novyi muzei iziashchnykh iskusstv imeni Imperatora Aleksandra III," Moskovskii arkhitekturnyi mir , 1912, no. 1:77-83; and 1913, no. 2:47-52.

64. See Evgeniia I. Kirichenko, "Istorizm myshleniia i tip muzeinogo zdaniia v russkoi arkhitekture serediny i vtoroi poloviny XIX v," in Vziamosviaz' iskusstv v khudozhest-vennom razvitii Rossii vtoroi poloviny XIX v ., ed. G. Iu. Sternin (Moscow, 1982), p. 145.

65. Klein's sketches for the Iusupov mausoleum appeared in Ezhegodnik Moskovskogo arkhitekturnogo obshchestva , no. 1 (1909), pp. 35-37. His assistant in the project was Grigorii Barkhin, later a leading Constructivist architect.

66. See Moskovskii arkhitekturnyi mir , 1913, no. 2:45-46; and 1912, no. 1:72-73, for interior photographs.

67. See "Novaia Moskva," Moskovskii arkhitekturnyi mir , 1915, no. 4:21, 25.

68. See "Sergei Ustinovich Solovev," Moskovskii arkhitekturnyi mir , 1913, no. 2:18-20; and 1914, no. 3:26, 30.

69. M. I. Astaf'eva-Dlugach and Iu. P. Volshok, eds., Zodchie Moskvy: XX vek (Moscow, 1988), pp. 65-66. Rerberg was assisted by Viacheslav Oltarzhevskii, who also collaborated in work on the Northern Insurance Company project.

70. See the unsigned article on new construction in the Kitai-Gorod district, "Novaia Moskva," Moskovskii arkhitekturnyi mir 3 (1914):61-67.

71. Sketches of the more highly ornamented initial version of the Northern Insurance Company project appeared in Ezhegodnik Moskovskogo arkhitekturnogo obshchestva , no. 1 (1909), pp. 98-99. Photographs of the completed building were published in no. 2 (1910-1911), pp. 82-84, and in Moskovskii arkhitekturnyi mir 1 (1912): 1, 3, 4.

72. Buryshkin, p. 198. Information on the financing of the project appeared in "Novaia Moskva," Moskovskii arkhitekturnyi mir 3 (1914): 62-63, with accompanying photographs. For a discussion of the technical aspects of the structure (a combination of brick walls and reinforced concrete), see M. A. Kozlovskaia, "Konstruktivnye struktury i arkhitekturnye formy grazhdanskikh zdanii," in Konstruktsii i arkhitekturnaia forma v russkom zodchestve XIX-nachala XX vv ., ed. Iu. S. Lebedev (Moscow, 1977), pp. 139-42.

73. M. P. Makotinskii, "A. V. Kuznetsov," in Zodchie Moskvy: XX vek , pp. 104-5. break

74. Because of the outbreak of war, the proceedings of the fifth congress were never published. Aleksandr Kuznetsov's lecture appeared in the two-part article "Arkhitektura zhelezobetona," Zodchii , 1915, no. 19:191-98; and no. 20:203-9. For a critical assessment of the fifth congress and the split between the architecture and engineering sections, see A. D. Alekseeva, Russkaia khudozhestvennaia kul'tura kontsa XIX-nachala XX veka, 1908-1917 , 4:332-33.

75. Aleksandr Kuznetsov, "Arkhitektura zhelezobetona," Zodchii , 1915, no. 20:209.

76. A. Stepanov, "O promyshlennom zodchestve (Zametki i mysli)," Zodchii , 1915, no. 12:119-23; and no. 13:131-137. After 1914 the role of industrial architecture assumed increasing importance, not only because the war made demands on industry but also because the commercial and housing markets declined rapidly. For a survey of architectural developments in Russia during the First World War, see A. A. Strigalev, "Spetsificheskie cherty arkhitektury Rossii v period mezhdu nachalom pervoi mirovoi voiny i oktiabr'skoi revoliutsiei," in Problemy istorii sovetskoi arkhitektury , ed. A. A. Strigalev (Moscow, 1985), pp. 6-30.

77. A. M. Ginzburg, "Rol' Germanii v russkoi stroitel'noi promyshlennosti," Zodchii , 1915, no. 16:155-59.

78. For a brief discussion of Ginzburg's work, see Borisova and Kazhdan, Russkaia arkhitektura , p. 138, with illustrations on p. 141. Although Ginzburg has received little attention in Soviet publications, numerous photographs and sketches of his work appeared in Moskovskii arkhitekturnyi mir 2 (1913): 92-97; 3 (1914): 111-16; and 4 (1915): 78.

79. The House of Public Meetings is now a railway workers' club. See N. L. Zharikov, Pamiatniki gradostroitel'stva i arkhitektury Ukrainskoi SSR v chetyrekh tomakh (Kiev, 1983), 2:127-28.

80. V. Machinskii, "Arkhitekturnye zametki," Zodchii , 1914, no. 25:297. His earlier article under the same title questioned the cultural leadership of the bourgeoisie and commented on the collapse of aesthetic standards (see Zodchii , 1914, no. 11:126-28).

81. "Arkhitekturnye zametki," Zodchii , no. 25:297.

82. Ibid., p. 298. Although Machinskii's artistic tastes are, to say the least, conservative, his attitude toward modernism seems the product not so much of critical hostility as of social analysis during a period of crisis. After the revolution, Machinskii wrote extensively on the development of workers' housing. See S. Frederick Starr, Melnikov: Solo Architect in a Mass Society (Princeton, N. J., 1978), p. 122.

81. "Arkhitekturnye zametki," Zodchii , no. 25:297.

83. "Arkhitekturnye zametki," Zodchii , 1914, no. 25:300. For a lucid discussion of the intellectual background of these ambivalent, often hostile, attitudes toward capitalism and the development of a "bourgeoisie" in Russia, see Alexander Gerschenkron, Economic Backwardness in Historical Perspective (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1966), pp. 152-87.

84. See the conference report by Mariia Koroleva, "V vserossiiskii s"ezd zodchikh," Zodchii , 1914, no. 2:17. A survey of critical attacks on the style moderne after 1910 is presented in Vladimir V. Kirillov, Arkhitektura russkogo moderna (Moscow, 1979), pp. 41-43.

85. Oskar Munts, "Parfenon ili Sv. Sofiia? K sporu o klassitsizme v arkhitekture," Arkhitekturno-khudozhestvennyi ezhenedel'nik , 1916, no. 2:19-22. The article by Benois, which appeared during November and December in the newspaper Rech ', took as its point of departure the neoclassical, retrospective trend in a recent show of student projects at the Academy of Arts.

86. Munts, "Parfenon ili Sv. Sofiia?" p. 22. Munts's article gave rise to an extended polemic with a group of neoclassical revivalists—writing under the name Duodecim, or the Twelve—who praised classicism as a universal language of architecture and culture. See "Za arkhitekturu," Arkhitekturno-khudozhestvennyi ezhenedel'nik , 1916, no. 9:115-18. The polemic continued in subsequent issues during 1916, with replies from both Munts and Duodecim. A recent Soviet article identifies Duodecim as a group of advanced students (including Georgii Lukomskii) in the architectural program at the Academy of Arts: A. A. Strigalev, "Spetsificheskie cherty arkhitektury Rossii v period mezhdu nachalom pervoi mirovoi voiny i oktiabr'skoi revoliutsiei," p. 29.

87. For a discussion of Munts's project for Tuchkov Buian, in which he competed with two other architects, Ivan Fomin and Mikhail Dubinskii, see Alekseeva, Russkaia khudozhestvennaia kul'tura kontsa XIX-nachala XX veka, 1908-1917 , 4:330, 332. A number of Munts's projects were published in Ezhegodnik Obshchestva arkhitektorov-khudozhnikov , particularly in no. 2 (1907), no. 4 (1909), no. 6 (1911), and no. 8 (1913). The 1912 volume contained a design for the main Moscow Post Office, which he co-designed with the engineer L. I. Novikov. The final design of the post office facade was modified by the Vesnin brothers, under contract with the firm of P. P. Visnevskii. See A. V. Erofeev, "Moskovskii neoklassitsizm (predrevoliutsionnoe tvorchestvo Vesninikh)," in Strigaleva, Problemy istorii sovetskoi arkhitektury , pp. 46, 50-51.

88. For a brief account of Munts's career after the revolution, see Barkhin, Mastera , 1:69-74.

89. Lukomskii, "Novyi Peterburg," p. 10.

90. Georgii Lukomskii, Sovremennyi Petrograd (Petrograd, n.d.), p. 30. This slender, elegant volume, subtitled "A Sketch of the History of the Appearance and Development of Neoclassical Construction," represents a compendium of Lukomskii's major writings on the neoclassical revival—including those in the 1913 and 1914 issues of Apollon —with an expanded preface, from which the quotation in the text comes. The imperial eagle and other insignia on the cover, as well as the material surveyed, indicate a publication date of 1916. Excellent photographic plates follow the essay. break

91. Lukomskii (1884-1954), a descendant of Ukrainian nobility, left Russia by way of Kiev, where in 1918 he participated in a survey of the city's medieval churches. After the German troops withdrew from the Ukraine at the end of the First World War, Lukomskii emigrated to France and resumed his career as a prolific writer, publishing frequently in French and English on European as well as Russian art. His lasting affection for the architecture of Italy and its classical values is reflected in the books he wrote on Venice, Rome, and the work of Vignola.

92. Moisei Ginzburg, Style and Epoch , trans. and ed. Anatole Senkevitch, Jr. (Cambridge: M.I.T. Press, 1982), p. 42. The translator's introduction surveys the intellectual background of Ginzburg's analysis of art and society.

93. See Fig. 240. For a discussion of the prerevolutionary neoclassical phase in the work of the Vesnin brothers, see A. V. Erofeev, "Moskovskii neoklassitsizm (predrevoliutsionno tvorchestvo Vesninykh)," in Strigaleva, Problemy istorii sovetskoi arkhitektury , pp. 41-52. The neoclassical revival continued during the early period of Soviet power, as architects such as Fomin, Belogrud, and Shchuko produced numerous designs for public buildings in the so-called Red Doric or proletarian classical manner. Two remarkable examples are project sketches, dating from 1919, by Fomin and Belogrud for a Palace of Workers, reproduced in A. M. Zhuravlev, A. V. Ikonnikov, and A. G. Rochegov, Arkhitektura sovetskoi Rossii (Moscow, 1987), pp. 56, 59. The persistence of neoclassicism in the work of many prominent architects during the first two decades of Soviet rule does not, however, justify the assumption that post-revolutionary modernism, Constructivism in particular, was essentially derived from a rationalist interpretation of the neoclassical revival. For further discussion of the complex relation between modern neoclassicism in Russia and the rationalist approach to design, both before and after the revolution, see Selim V. Khan-Magomedov, Aleksandr Vesnin and Russian Constructivism (New York, 1986), pp. 15, 34-35.

94. The question of continuity during the period of transition in early Soviet architecture is examined in V. E. Khazanova, Sovetskaia arkhitektura pervykh let oktiabria, 1917-1925 gg . (Moscow, 1970).

95. Books on city planning included A. Ensh, Goroda-sady (goroda budushchego ) (Petersburg, 1913); V. Semenov, Blagoustroistvo gorodov (Moscow, 1912); V. Dadonov, Sotsializm bez politiki: Goroda-sady budushchego v nastoiashchem (Petersburg, 1912); Mikhail Dikanskii, Postroika gorodov, ikh plan i krasota (Petrograd, 1915). In addition, numerous articles on city planning by these specialists and others regularly appeared in journals such as Zodchii and Gorodskoe delo . For a survey of this material see Alekseeva, Russkaia khudozhestvennaia kul'tura kontsa XIX-nachala XX veka, 1908-1917 , 4:298-303. The Soviet scholar V. L. Ruzhzhe has written numerous articles on the topic, as well as Progressivnye tvorcheskie vozzreniia arkhitektorov Peterburgskoi shkoly kontsa XIX-nachala XX vv. (Idei gorodovsadov ) (Moscow, 1961). S. Frederick Starr provides an informed discussion of Russian approaches to town planning during the decade before and after 1917 in "The Revival and Schism of Urban Planning in Twentieth-Century Russia," in The City in Russian History , ed. Michael F. Hamm (Lexington, 1976), pp. 222-42. Early Soviet approaches to planning and the link with prerevolutionary concepts are also analyzed in Khazanova, Sovietskaia arkhitektura , pp. 43-100.

96. See William C. Brumfield, "Architecture and Urban Planning," in The Soviet Union Today: An Interpretive Guide ed. James Cracraft (Chicago, 1988), pp. 164-176.

97. The current revival of interest in the style moderne and its aestheticism is evident not only from the rush of Soviet articles and books on the topic during the past two decades, abundantly clear in the citations to the present work, but also from the growing interest on the part of the Soviet public in preserved monuments such as the Riabushinskii house. break