Six Local Military Power and Elite Formation: the Liu Family of Xingyi County, Guizhou
1. Kuhn 1970.
2. One notable exception is Meskill 1979.
3. According to Skinner (1977c, 214-215, 241), the Yun-Gui macroregion consists of most of Yunnan, central and western Guizhou, and a portion of southern Sichuan. For a general description of the Yun-Gui macroregion, see Naquin and Rawski, 199-205.
4. "Topography of Kweichau," 530.
5. Neville and Bell, 105; The Provinces of China , 97-100; Xue Shaoming, 55.
6. The Provinces of China , 99-100; Neville and Bell, 105, 130; Bourne, 44-45; Tang Zaiyang, 13; Mo Jian and Lei Yongming, 40.
7. Bourne, 44-45.
8. Luo Raodian, 57.
9. Ai Bida, 191; Xingyi fuzhi , 35:2b.
10. Ai Bida, 185, 189.
11. Bourne, 44. Also see "Topography of Kweichau," 530.
12. Ai Bida, 191.
13. Xingyi fuzhi 47:26b-29a. Xingyi prefecture was composed of the counties of Xingyi, Pu'an, and Annan along with the department ( zhou ) of Zhenfeng and the subprefecture ( ting ) of Panzhou.
14. Wu Xuechou and Hu Gang, 195; Guizhou daxue lishixi, 186-187; Feng Zuyi 1984, 61.
15. Guizhou daxue lishixi, 187.
16. Ibid.
15. Guizhou daxue lishixi, 187.
16. Ibid.
17. Wu Xuechou and Hu Gang, 195; He Jiwu, 267.
18. Yang Defang and Weng Jialie, 70-71.
19. Bourne, 44.
20. Bao Jianxing, 79-82; Wu Xuechou and Hu Gang, 187-188.
21. "Liu Guanli Xiawutun zhongyi ci ji," 4:29b; "Liu Tongzhi xiansheng nianpu," 4:31a-31b; Wu Xuechou and Hu Gang, 195.
22. Kuhn 1970, 67.
23. Schoppa 1973, 10, 16-17.
24. For a description of the local strongman as a social type, see Meskill, 88-91.
25. "Liu Guanli," 4: 29b-30b; "Liu Tongzhi," 4:31b-34a.
26. "Liu Guanli," 4: 30a-30b; "Liu Tongzhi," 4:31b, 34a; Wang Yanyu, 245; Guizhou daxue lishixi, 190.
27. "Liu Tongzhi," 4:32a-32b, 34a.
28. Kuhn 1970, 120-121.
29. Liu Guanli's troops had an unsavory reputation for their thorough plundering. In one place, their passing left a popular saying, "Liu's soldiers came to Long-chang, and in one sweep left only dust and smoke." Long Shangxue, Chen Hanhui, and Fang Jian, 91-92.
30. Guizhou daxue lishixi, 189.
31. ''Liu Tongzhi," 4:31b.
32. Wu Xuechou and Hu Gang, 197; Guizhou daxue lishixi, 190.
33. This feud began during the 1862-63 siege of Xiawutun when the Lius' surrender to besieging rebels allowed the rebels to turn and destroy a militia band that had been sent from the town of Bangzha to aid the Lius by three militia leaders, who originally had been Liu Guanzhen's close personal friends. One of these men was killed, and the other two swore to seek revenge against the Lius for what they saw as a betrayal. When Liu Guanzhen went on a militia inspection tour to Bangzha in 1865 these men took their revenge. Wu Xuechou and Hu Gang, 195-196.
34. Ibid., 196-197.
33. This feud began during the 1862-63 siege of Xiawutun when the Lius' surrender to besieging rebels allowed the rebels to turn and destroy a militia band that had been sent from the town of Bangzha to aid the Lius by three militia leaders, who originally had been Liu Guanzhen's close personal friends. One of these men was killed, and the other two swore to seek revenge against the Lius for what they saw as a betrayal. When Liu Guanzhen went on a militia inspection tour to Bangzha in 1865 these men took their revenge. Wu Xuechou and Hu Gang, 195-196.
34. Ibid., 196-197.
35. Zhou Suyuan 1963, 12.
36. Long Shangxue et al., 91.
37. Wu Xuechou and Hu Gang, 196.
38. E.g., Liu Yuezhao, 287-296.
39. Wu Xuechou and Hu Gang, 197; Guizhou daxue lishixi, 191; "Liu Tongzhi," 4: 34a.
40. Zhou Suyuan 1963, 12; Feng Zuyi 1984, 62.
41. See McCord 1988.
42. Long Shangxue et al., 91.
43. Wu Xuechou and Hu Gang, 197.
44. Ling Ti'an, 4: 28a-29b.
45. Zhou Suyuan 1963, 12.
46. Ibid.
45. Zhou Suyuan 1963, 12.
46. Ibid.
47. Wu Xuezhou and Hu Gang, 197.
48. Bourne, 44.
49. Wu Xuechou and Hu Gang, 197.
50. Ibid.; Feng Zuyi 1984, 63.
49. Wu Xuechou and Hu Gang, 197.
50. Ibid.; Feng Zuyi 1984, 63.
51. Zhou Suyuan 1963, 12.
52. He Jiwu, 267; Li Defang, 71; Xiong Zongren 1987a, 151. Liu Xianshi's son, Liu Gangwu, also earned a shengyuan degree in the last years of the examination system. He Jiwu, 283.
53. Mo Jian and Le Yongming, 46-47.
54. Feng Zuyi 1982, 58-59.
55. He Jiwu, 267; Li Defang, 71.
56. "Liu Guanli," 4:30b. Wu Xuechou and Hu Gang, 198; Feng Zuyi 1984, 63; Feng Zuyi 1982, 59.
57. Zhou Suyuan 1963, 12; Feng Zuyi 1984, 63.
58. He Jiwu, 268.
59. Wu Xuechou and Hu Gang, 198; Zhou Suyuan 1963, 12.
60. He Jiwu, 268; Zhou Suyuan 1963, 3, 12.
61. Li Shi, 121.
62. Wu Xuechou and Hu Gang, 197-198.
63. Ibid.; He Jiwu, 268; Feng Zuyi 1984, 63-64.
62. Wu Xuechou and Hu Gang, 197-198.
63. Ibid.; He Jiwu, 268; Feng Zuyi 1984, 63-64.
64. Wu Xuechou and Hu Gang, 197; Feng Zuyi 1984, 63-64.
65. He Jiwu, 268, 287; Boorman and Howard, eds., 2:79.
66. Feng Zuyi 1984, 64; He Jiwu, 283.
67. Feng Zuyi 1984, 64; Li Defang, 71.
68. Wu Xuechou and Hu Gang, 198; Wu Xuechou 1979, 108.
69. Tang Eryong's grandfather, Tang Jiong, was a provincial degree holder who had held the post of provincial governor. Hummel, ed., 707-708.
70. Zhou Suyuan 1980, 6-7; Wu Xuechou and Hu Gang, 183; Li Shi, 121.
71. Feng Zuyi 1984, 64.
72. He Jiwu, 268.
73. Tang Eryong was eventually forced into retirement by an exposé of a Tang family scandal in a Self-Government Society newspaper. Zhou Suyuan 1980, 57-58.
74. Wu Xuezhou 1979, 72-87. The best discussion of the composition and character of Guizhou's two reformist factions is Li Shi 1982.
75. Wu Xuechou 1979, 92-93; Wu Xuechou and Hu Gang, 185-186; Zhou Suyuan 1963, 3.
76. Wu Xuechou 1979, 92; Zhou Suyuan 1963, 3-4.
77. Ping Gang 1981, 14.
78. He Jiwu, 270; Ping Gang 1959, 300; Yang Changming, 206.
79. Huang Jizhou, 164; Zhou Suyuan 1980, 63-64; Yang Changming, 206.
80. Zhou Suyuan 1980, 64; Wu Xuechou 1979, 98.
81. Wu Xuechou 1979, 103-107.
82. Zou Lu, 6:398; Sun Zhongyin, 239, 245-246, 253; Zhou Suyuan 1980, 67; Wu Xuechou 1979, 109.
83. One of Liu Xianzhi's Guizhou colleagues in the Yunnan government, Xiong Fanyu, was a metropolitan degree holder. For a time in the late Qing, Xiong had lectured in Xingyi schools. Together with Liu Xianzhi, Xiong had joined Liang Qichao's reformist circle in Japan and then obtained a post on the Yunnan governor-general's staff. Wu Xuechou and Zhang You, 108; Wu Xuechou and Hu Gang, 197; Sun Zhongyin, 245-246, 252.
84. Wu Xuechou 1979, 109-110, 114-115; Zhou Suyuan 1963, 7-8.
85. When the expeditionary force that had left the province during the Revolution tried to return to Guizhou later in 1912 they were blocked by Liu and Tang's armies, defeated and dispersed. Wu Xuechou 1979, 110-113; Zhou Suyuan 1963, 8-11.
86. Gui Baizhu, 102.
87. Xiong Zongren 1987a, 152-154.
88. Xiong Zongren 1987b, 70-73.
89. Boorman and Howard, eds., 2: 79.
90. Gui Baizhu, 102-103; He Jiwu, 288.
91. He Jiwu, 283-284; Guizhou daxue lishixi, 198. Liu Gangwu's son, Liu Daren, later served as a foreign ministry spokesman and a diplomat for the Guomin-dang government in Taiwan. He Jiwu, 265, 284.
92. Boorman and Howard, eds., 2:80; He Jiwu, 288, 311.
93. Among other posts, Liu Xianqian served as brigade general of Anyi and Weining districts, west Guizhou circuit intendant and bandit commissioner, and as head of southwestern Guizhou salt administration. Zhang Youdong et al., 288; Xiong Zongren 1987a, 152-153.
94. He Jiwu, 282.
95. Guizhou daxue lishixi, 199-200.
96. Zhou Suyuan 1980, 93.
97. Dagong bao (Oct. 14, 1920).
98. The struggle between Liu Xianshi and Wang Wenhua emerged in late 1920 when Liu opposed the return of Wang's army from a three-year sojourn in Sichuau. Wang himself "retired" to Shanghai during the coup to avoid the opprobrium of direct involvement in his uncle's fall. Among the actual coup leaders, however, were He Yingqin, Wang's brother-in-law, and Sun Jianfeng, who was both Wang Wenhua's cousin on the Wang side and the brother of the wife of Liu Xianshi's eldest son, Liu Jianwu. Wang Wenhua gained little from the coup as he was assassinated in Shanghai soon after by another Guizhou military rival. Xiong Zongren 1987b, 74; Lin Zixian, 119.
99. Zhou Suyuan 1963, 16; Xiong Zongren 1987a, 155.
100. Guizhou daxue lishixi, 198-199.