1. T. J. Clark, The Painting of Modern Life: Paris in the Art of Manet and His Followers (New York, 1985), chap. 3.

2. There are no precise figures on the composition of classes in Parisian suburbs in the early twentieth century. My research suggests that, although figures vary widely from one suburb to another, workers and their families constituted roughly one-third of the suburban population. On this point, cf. Jean Bastié, La Croissance de la banlieue parisienne (Paris, 1964); and Michel Mollat, ed., Histoire de l'Ile-de-France et de Paris (Toulouse, 1971).

3. On this point see Edouard Blanc, La Ceinture rouge (Paris, 1927); Pierre (Pére) Lhande, Le Christ dans la banlieue (Paris, 1927); and the works of Jacques Valdour, such as Ateliers et taudis de la banlieue de Paris (Paris, 1923) and Ouvriers parisiens d'après-guerre (Paris, 1921).

4. Rémy Butler and Patrice Noisette, Le logement social en France, 1815-1981: de la cité ouvrière au grand ensemble (Paris, 1982), p. 63.

5. Interview with Florence Aumont on 7 January 1985, Foyer Gaston Monmousseau, Bobigny.

6. One of the few major studies on French communism to focus on Party membership is Annie Kriegel, The French Communists: Portrait of a People (Chicago, 1972). See also Philippe Robrieux, Histoire intérieure du parti communiste (Paris, 1980-83); Annie Kriegel, Aux origines du communisme français , 2 vols. (Paris, 1969); Daniel Brower, The New Jacobins (Ithaca, 1968); Jean-Paul Brunet, Saint-Denis, la ville rouge (Paris, 1980).

7. The literature on French social history in the nineteenth century is vast and still growing. Important works in this field include Rolande Trempé, Les

Mineurs de Carmaux , 2 vols. (Paris, 1971); Michelle Perrot, Les Ouvriers en grève , 2 vols. (Paris, 1974); Yves Lequin, Les Ouvriers de la région lyonnaise, 1814-1914 , 2 vols. (Lyon, 1977); Joan Scott, The Glassworkers of Carmaux (Cambridge, Mass., 1974); Michael Hanagan, The Logic of Solidarity (Urbana, 1980); Ron Aminzade, Class, Politics, and Early Industrial Capitalism (Albany, 1981); and John Merriman, The Red City (Oxford, 1985). For a critique of this approach, see Tony Judt, Marxism and the French Left (Oxford, 1986).