1. I am particularly indebted to Charles Bergquist for the notion of ''crisis" and "resolution" suggested here.

2. Cf. Mikael Bostrom, "Political Waves in Latin America, 1940-1987." Typescript, Umea, Sweden, 1988; Paul W. Drake, "Debt and Democracy in Latin America, 1920s-1980s," in Debt and Democracy in Latin America , edited by Barbara Stallings and Robert Kaufman. Boulder: Westview Press, 1989, 39-58.

3. See Fernando Henrique Cardoso and Enzo Faletto, Dependency and Development in Latin America . Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1979; and Peter Gourevitch, Politics in Hard Times . Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1986.

4. Rosemary Thorp and Geoffrey Bertram, Peru, 1890-1977: Growth and Policy in an Open Economy . London: Macmillan, 1978, 152-53.

5. For a similar treatment of political and social coalitions in Latin America see Thomas E. Skidmore and Peter H. Smith, Modern Latin America . New York: Oxford University Press, 1984, 360-70.

6. Juan Manuel Reveco del Villar, "Los influjos del APRA en el Partido Socialista de Chile." Thesis, FLACSO, Santiago, 1989.

7. Norbert Lechner, La democracia en Chile . Buenos Aires: Ediciones Signos, 1970, 74-86.

8. Thorp and Bertram, Peru , 147-53; Baltazar Caravedo Molinari, Burguesía e industria en el Perú 1933-1945 . Lima: Instituto de Estudios Peruanos, 1976.

9. Most of the sections on Chile draw heavily on Paul W. Drake, Socialism and Populism in Chile, 1932-1952 . Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1978. Also see Brian Loveman, Chile: The Legacy of Hispanic Capitalism . 2d ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988; Ricardo Donoso, Alessandri, agitador y demoledor . Vol. 2. México, D.F.: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1952, 1954; T. Ellsworth, Chile, an Economy in Transition . Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1945.

10. Paul W. Drake, "The Political Responses of the Chilean Upper Class to the Depression and the Threat of Socialism, 1931-1933," in The Rich, the Well Born, and the Powerful , edited by Frederic Cople Jaher. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1973, 304-37.

11. Luis Alberto Sánchez, Testimonio personal . Vol. 2. Lima: Ediciones Villasan, 1969, 573-81; Alejandro Chelén Rojas, Flujo y reflujo del socialismo chileno . Montevideo: Ediciones Vanguardia Socialista, 1961; idem, Trayectoria del socialismo . Buenos Aires: Astral, 1967; Julio César Jobet, El Partido Socialista de Chile . 2 vols. Santiago: Prensa Latinoamericana, 1971; idem, El socialismo chileno a través de sus congresos . Santiago: Prensa Latinoamericana, 1965; Alan Angell, Politics and the Labour Movement in Chile . London: Oxford University Press, 1972. On the influence of the Spanish

Civil War on Peru as well as on Chile see Mark Falcoff and Fredrick B. Pike, The Spanish Civil War, 1936-1939: American Hemispheric Perspectives . Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1982.

12. Luis Alberto Sánchez, Visto y vivido en Chile: Bitacora chilena, 1930-1970 . Lima: Editoriales Unidas, S.A.,., 1975; Carmelo Furci, The Chilean Communist Party and the Road to Socialism . London: Zed Books, 1984, 33-35; John Reese Stevenson, The Chilean Popular Front . Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1942; Ernst Halperin, Nationalism and Communism in Chile . Cambridge: Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press, 1965, 43-52; Marta Infante Barros, Testigos del treinta y ocho . Santiago: Editorial Andrés Bello, 1972; Ricardo Boizard, Historia de una derrota . Santiago: Ediciones Orbe, 1941; Elías Ravines, La gran estafa . 2d ed. Santiago: Editorial del Pacífico, 1954; Elías Lafertte, Vida de un comunista . Santiago: n.p. 1961, 298-304; Gabriel González Videla, Memorias . Vol. 1. Santiago: Editorial Gabriela Mistral, 1975, 155; L. A. Sánchez, Testimonio , 581.

13. Víctor Villanueva, El APRA en busca del poder, 1930-1940 . Lima: Editorial Horizonte, 1975; Orazio Ciccarelli, "Fascism and Politics in Peru during the Benavides Regime, 1933-1939: The Italian Perspective," Hispanic American Historical Review 70, no. 3 (August 1990), 405-32.

14. Robert J. Alexander, Communism in Latin America . New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1957, 227-29; idem, Aprismo: The Ideas and Doctrines of Víctor Raúl Haya de la Torre . Kent: Kent State University Press, 1973; Denis Sulmont, El movi-miento obrero en el Perú 1900-1956 . Lima: Pontífica Universidad Católica del Perú 1975, 151-74; Víctor Villanueva, El APRA y el ejército, 1940-1950 . Lima: Editorial Horizonte, 1977, 7-20; Alberto Moya Obeso, Sindicalismo aprista y clasista en el Perú, 1920-1956 . Trujillo: Librería Star, n.d.; Reveco, "APRA," 76.

15. R. Harrison Wagner, United States Policy toward Latin America . Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1970, 14-16, R. A. Humphreys, Latin America and the Second World War . 2 vols. London: Athlone Press, 1981, 1982, 2: 226-27; Irwin F. Gellman, Good Neighbor Diplomacy . Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979, George Soule, David Efron, and Norman T. Ness, Latin America in the Future World . New York: Farrar and Rinehart, 1945; Arthur Whitaker, ed. Inter-American Affairs . 5 vols. New York: Columbia University Press, 1942-1946.

16. William F. Sater, Chile and the United States: Empires in Conflict . Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1990, 113-20; Peter G. Snow, Radicalismo chileno . Buenos Aires: Editorial Francisco de Aguirre, 1972; Arturo Olavarría Bravo, Chile entre dos Alessandri . Vol. 2. Santiago: Editorial Nascimento, 1962, 29. For extensive information on industrialization throughout these decades see Oscar Muñoz, Crecimiento industrial de Chile, 1914-1965 . Santiago: Universidad de Chile, 1968.

17. Michael J. Francis, The Limits of Hegemony: United States Relations with Argentina and Chile during World War II . Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1977, 20-21; Whitaker, Inter-American Affairs, 1944 , 130-32.

18. Ellsworth, Chile , 85-93.

19. Andrew Barnard, "Chilean Communists, Radical Presidents, and Chilean

Relations with the United States, 1940-1947," Journal of Latin American Studies 13 , no. 2 (November 1981), 347-74; Florencio Durán Bernales, El Partido Radical . Santiago: Editorial Nascimento, 1958; Galo González Díaz, La lucha por la formación del Partido Comunista de Chile . Santiago: n.p.,., 1958, 20-42.

20. Quoted in Reveco, "APRA," 74-75.

21. H. Boris Yopo, "El Partido Socialista Chileno y Estados Unidos: 1933-1946," Documento de Trabajo del FLACSO , no. 224, October 1984, 1; Stevenson, Chilean Popular Front , 110-17; Oscar Schnake Vergara, América y la guerra . Santiago: Taller de Publicaciones del PS, 1941; idem, Chile y la guerra . Santiago: Ediciones Ercilla, 1941; Salvador Allende, La contradicción de Chile . Santiago: Talleres Gráficos, 1943.

22. Partido Socialista, Primer congreso de los partidos democráticos de latinoamérica . Santiago: Talleres Gráficos Gutenberg, 1940; Julio César Jobet, El Partido Socialista de Chile . Vol. 1. Santiago: Prensa Latinoamericana, 1971, 148-50; Reveco, "APRA," 89-90.

23. Barnard, "Chilean Communists," 347-74; Alexander, Communism , 15-29.

24. Humphreys, Latin America , 1: 124; ibid.,., 2: 99-105; Allen Gerlach, "Civil-Military Relations in Peru, 1914-1945." Ph.D. diss.,., University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, 1973, 501-5; James Carey, Peru and the United States, 1900-1962 . Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1964, 105-10; Thomas M. Davies, Jr.,., Indian Integration in Peru: A Half Century of Experience, 1900-1948 . Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1970, 129-31.

23. Barnard, "Chilean Communists," 347-74; Alexander, Communism , 15-29.

24. Humphreys, Latin America , 1: 124; ibid.,., 2: 99-105; Allen Gerlach, "Civil-Military Relations in Peru, 1914-1945." Ph.D. diss.,., University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, 1973, 501-5; James Carey, Peru and the United States, 1900-1962 . Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1964, 105-10; Thomas M. Davies, Jr.,., Indian Integration in Peru: A Half Century of Experience, 1900-1948 . Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1970, 129-31.

25. Waldo Frank, South American Journey . New York: Duell, Sloan, and Pearce, 1943, 266-67; Víctor Raúl Haya de la Torre, Y después de la guerra ¿Qué? Lima: Editorial PTCM, 1946; Villanueva, El APRA y el ejército , 27-34.

26. Reveco, "APRA," 69-77.

27. Harry Kantor, The Ideology and Program of the Peruvian Aprista Movement . Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1953, 98-114; Fredrick B. Pike. The Modern History of Peru . New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1967, 277-278; Víctor Raúl Haya de la Torre, La defensa continental . Buenos Aires: Ediciones Prob-lemas de América, 1942; idem, Obras completas . Vol. 1. Lima: Editorial Juan Mejía Baca, 1977, 268-99; Manuel Seoane, Nuestra América y la guerra . Santiago: Ediciones Ercilla, 1940; idem, El gran vecino: América en la encrucijada . Santiago: Editorial Orbe, 1944, Luis Alberto Sánchez, Un sudamericano en norteamérica . Lima: Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, 1968, 298-322; L. A. Sánchez, Testimonio , 586; Carey, Peru , 116-18; Moya, Sindicalismo , 87-88.

28. Sulmont, Movimiento obrero , 177-84.

29. Alexander, Communism , 229-31; Sulmont, Movimiento obrero , 171-87; Moya, Sindicalismo , 92-94.

30. See David Rock, "War and Postwar Intersections: Latin America and the United States," this volume.

31. Wagner, United States Policy , 17-20, 92; Humphreys, Latin America , 2: 215-16; James C. Tillapaugh, "From War to Cold War: United States Policies toward Latin America, 1943-1948." Ph.D. diss.,., Northwestern University, Evanston, 1973, Fre-

drick B. Pike, The United States and the Andean Republics: Peru, Bolivia, and Ecuador . Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1977, 269-70.

32. On economic trends see Rosemary Thorp, "The Latin American Economies in the 1940s," this volume; Universidad de Chile, Desarrollo económico de Chile, 1940-1956 . Santiago: Instituto de Economía, 1956.

33. Wagner, United States Policy , 46-49; Humphreys, Latin America , 2: 227-28.

34. Claude G. Bowers, Chile through Embassy Windows . New York: Simon and Schuster, 1958, 329.

35. Partido Comunista, Ricardo Fonseca: Combatiente ejemplar . Santiago: Talleres Gráficos Lautaro, 1952, 124-49; González Videla, Memorias , 467-69; Chelén, Trayectoria , 103-13; Halperin, Nationalism and Communism , 53.

36. Partido Comunista, Ricardo , 127-34; Barnard, "Chilean Communists," 348.

37. Lafertte, Un comunista , 330; Bowers, Chile , 159-62.

38. Ibáñez was an admirer of Haya de la Torre, and he had been a guest of the AFL-CIO in the United States during the war. Cf. Reveco, "APRA," 80; Whitaker, Inter-American Affairs , 1944, 72-73; Chelén, Trayectoria , 106-7, Bowers, Chile , 39; Bernardo Ibáñez, El socialismo y el porvenir de los pueblos . Santiago: Ediciones Difusión Popular, 1946.

39. The 1946 congress was also known as the "First American Congress of Parties of Socialist Tendencies." As in 1940 the Communists were excluded, and they denigrated this "American Social Democrat Congress." "to serve North American imperialist plans.'' Reveco, "APRA," 90-94; Jobet, El Partido , 194-95.

40. Gonzalo Portocarrero Maisch, De Bustamante a Odría . Lima: Mosca Azul Editores, 1983, 67-75, 90-92; José Luis Bustamante y Rivero, Tres años de lucha por la democracia en el Perú . Buenos Aires: n.p.,., 1949, esp. 11-25; Sulmont, Movimiento obrero , 185-87; Haya de la Torre, Obras , 5: 343-412; Moya, Sindicalismo , 141.

41. Reveco, "APRA," 81-83.

42. Nigel Haworth, "Peru," in Latin America between the Second World War and the Cold War, 1944-1948 , edited by Leslie Bethell and Ian Roxborough. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993, 170-89; Fredrick B. Pike, The Politics of the Miraculous in Peru: Haya de la Torre and the Spiritualist Tradition . Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1986, 200-203.

43. Pike, Modern History , 283-89; Portocarrero, Bustamante a Odría , 111-14; Haworth, "Peru", Moya, Sindicalismo , 125-29; Haya de la Torre, Obras , 1: 300-320; Percy MacLean y Estenós, Historia de una revolución . Buenos Aires: Editorial E.A.A.L.,., 1953; Grant Hilliker, The Politics of Reform in Peru . Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1971.

44. Sulmont, Movimiento obrero , 181.

45. González Videla, Memorias , 506, 603-4.

46. Gilbert J. Butland, Chile . London: Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1953, 108-9; Barnard, "Chilean Communists," 363-74; González Videla, Memorias , 573-765; Durán, Partido Radical , 426-29, 478-97, 549-89; Lafertte, Un comunista , 341; Partido Comunista, Ricardo , 152-78; Bowers, Chile , 166-75, 309-29.

47. Furci, Chilean Communist Party , 43-56; Partido Comunista, Ricardo , 15-19, 159-78; S. Cole Blasier, "Chile: A Communist Battleground," Political Science Quarterly 65 (1950), 353-74.

48. González Videla, Memorias , 529-31.

49. Ibáñez, El socialismo , 3-63; El movimiento sindical internacional y la fundación de la C.I.T. Santiago: n.p..,., 1949; Serafino Romualdi, Presidents and Peons . New York: Funk and Wagnalls, 1967, 37-42, 73-139, 323-32; George Morris, CIA and American Labor . New York: International Publishers, 1967, 48-91; Moya, Sindicalismo , 198-200.

50. Chelén, Trayectoria , 116-31; Barnard, "Chilean Communists"; Oscar Waiss, El drama socialista . N.p.,., [1948].

51. Chelén, Trayectoria , 125-92; Lafertte, Un comunista , 348; Angell, Labour Movement , 174-82; Halperin, Nationalism and Communism , 57-61, 128-44, 192-201.

52. Pike, Politics of the Miraculous , 226-30; Moya, Sindicalismo , 133-35; Ray Josephs, Latin America: Continent in Crisis . New York: Random House, 1948, 173-76.

53. Portocarrero, De Bustamante a Odría , 138-64.

54. Romualdi, Presidents and Peons , 294-95; Portocarrero, De Bustamante a Odría , 161-72; Sulmont, Movimiento obrero , 226-28; Haworth, "Peru."

55. L. A. Sánchez, Testimonio , 864-65; Haya de la Torre, Obras , 1: 242-58; Bustamante, Democracia , 244-45; Pike, Politics of the Miraculous 232-41; Víctor Villanueva, La sublevación aprista del 48 . Lima: Editorial Horizonte, 1973; Villanueva, El APRA y el ejército .

56. Moya, Sindicalismo , 152-54, MacLean, Revolución: Alexander, Communism , 231-33; Josephs, Latin America , 178-81.

57. Bustamante, Democracia , 319-27; Pike, Modern History , 290-91; Thorp and Bertram, Peru , 149; Sulmont, Movimiento obrero , 197-240; Portocarrero, Bustamante, democracia a Odría , 201-5. Haworth, "Peru."

58. Oscar Waiss, Nacionalismo y socialismo en América Latina . Santiago: Prensa Latinoamericana, 1954.

59. Hilliker, Reform , 125.

An earlier version of this essay was published in John D. French, The Brazilian Workers' ABC: Class Conflict and Alliances in Modern São Paulo . Copyright © 1992 by the University of North Carolina Press. Used by permission of the author and publisher.