1. John Leddy Phelan, The Hispanization of the Philippines: Spanish Aims and Filipino Responses, 1565-1700 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1959), pp. vii-viii. On the role of economics see Daniel F. Doeppers, Manila, 1900-1941: Social Change in a Late Colonial Metropolis (Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1984), and Norman G. Owen, Prosperity without Progress: Manila Hemp and Material Life in the Colonial Philippines (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1984).

2. William Lytle Shurz, The Manila Galleon (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1939), pp. 30-56.

3. Reviews of and references to studies on the history of sugar societies have appeared in the World Sugar History Newsletter edited by Bill Albert at the University of East Anglia. See also J. H. Galloway, The Sugar Cane Industry: An Historical Geography from Its Origins to 1914 (Cam-bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989).

4. Sidney W. Mintz, Sweetness and Power: The Place of Sugar in Modern History (New York: Viking, 1985), pp. 19-61; Wallace R. Aykroyd, Sweet Malefactor: Sugar, Slavery and Human Society (London: Heinemann, 1967), chaps. 2-6; Richard B. Sheridan, Sugar and Slavery: An Economic History of the British West Indies, 1623-1775 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1973); Richard S. Dunn, Sugar and Slaves: The Rise of the Planter Class in the English West Indies, 1624-1713 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1972); Robert Louis Stein, The French Sugar Business in the Eighteenth Century (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1988); Jan Breman, Control of Land and Labour in Colonial Java: A Case Study of Agrarian Crisis and Reform in the Region of Cirebon During the First Decades of the 20th

Century , Verhandelingen van het Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Landen Volkenkunde, 101 (Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Foris, 1983).

5. Noel Deerr, The History of Sugar , 2 vols. (London: Chapman and Hall, 1949-50); Alfred W. McCoy, ''Rural Philippines: Technological Change in the Sugar Industry," in The Philippines after Marcos , ed. R. J. May and Francisco Nemenzo (London and Sydney: Croom Helm, 1985), pp. 182-87; Ruben R. Alcantara, Sakada.' Filipino Adaptation in Hawaii (Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 1981), pp. 81-82, 129.

6. Ellen Deborah Ellis, An Introduction to the History of Sugar as a Commodity (Philadelphia: John C. Winston, 1905), chap. 3; John Yudkin, Sweet and Dangerous (New York: Bantam, 1972); Jean Mayer, "The Bitter Truth about Sugar," New York Times Magazine , June 20, 1976, pp. 26-34; Ellen Ruppel Shell, "Sweetness and Health," Atlantic Monthly , August 1985, pp. 14-20; University of California, Berkeley, Wellness Letter , December 1989, pp. 4-5.

7. Sugar '69 (Quezon City: National Federation of Sugarcane Planters, 1969), pp. 49-50; Alcantara, Sakada , pp. 1-96, passim ; Rene Dumont, Is Cuba Socialist ? (New York: Viking, 1974), pp. 68-69, 74, 142-43; Carmelo Mesa-Lago, Cuba in the 1970s: Pragmatism and Institutionalization , rev. ed. (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1978), pp. 49-50; Medea Benjamin, Joseph Collins, and Michael Scott, No Free Lunch: Food and Revolution in Cuba Today (San Francisco: Institute of Food and Development Policy, 1984), pp. 120-31, 142-45. See also R. E. Elson, Javanese Peasants and the Colonial Sugar Industry: Impact and Change in an East Java Residency, 1839-1940 (Singapore: Oxford University Press, 1984); Roger Plant, Sugar and Modern Slavery: A Tale of Two Countries (London: Zed Books, 1987); Alec Wilkinson, Big Sugar: Seasons in the Cane Fields of Florida (New York: Knopf, 1989); Bill Albert and Adrian Graves, eds., Crisis and Change in the International Sugar Economy, 1860-1914 (Norwich and Edinburgh, UK: ISC Press, 1984) and idem, The World Sugar Economy in War and Depression, 1914-1940 (London: Routledge, 1988).

8. Immanuel Wallerstein, The Capitalist World-Economy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979), chaps. 1, 6. See also Doeppers, Manila, 1900-1941 , p. 5. On the limitations of such an analysis, see McCoy's introduction in Alfred W. McCoy and Ed. C. de Jesus, eds., Philippine Social History: Global Trade and Local Transformations (Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1982), pp. 11-14.

9. Lucien M. Hanks, Rice and Man: Agricultural Ecology in South-east Asia (Chicago: Aldine, 1972). A lesser example, for want of sufficient data, is Clifford Geertz, Agricultural Involution: The Process of Ecological Change in Indonesia (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1966).

10. Julian H. Steward, Theory of Culture Change: The Methodology of Multilinear Evolution (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1955), p. 37.

11. Ibid.

12. Ibid., pp. 40-41.

10. Julian H. Steward, Theory of Culture Change: The Methodology of Multilinear Evolution (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1955), p. 37.

11. Ibid.

12. Ibid., pp. 40-41.

10. Julian H. Steward, Theory of Culture Change: The Methodology of Multilinear Evolution (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1955), p. 37.

11. Ibid.

12. Ibid., pp. 40-41.

13. For a model of comparative agricultural history, see Eric R. Wolf and Sidney W. Mintz, "Haciendas and Plantations in Middle America and the Antilles," Social and Economic Studies 6 (September 1957): 380-412.

14. Renato Constantino, The Philippines: A Past Revisited (Quezon City: Tala Publishing, 1974); Teodoro A. Agoncillo and Milagros C. Guerrero, History of the Filipino People , 5th ed. (Quezon City: R. P. Garcia, 1977).

15. Bulletin Today (Manila), June 13, 1982, p. 6.

16. Philippine Commonwealth, Department of Agriculture and Commerce, Soil Survey of Pampanga Province, Philippines , Soil Report 5 (Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1939); Philippine Republic, Bureau of Soils, Soil Survey of Negros Occidental Province, Philippines , Soil Report 14 (Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1951); Frederick L. Wernstedt, "Agricultural Regionalism on Negros Island, Philippines" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California at Los Angeles, 1953); and Domingo C. Salita, "Land Use in the Province of Pampanga" (M.A. thesis, University of the Philippines, 1958).

17. Philippine Sugar Handbook, 1972 Edition (Manila: Sugar News Press, 1972), p. 106.

18. In the mid-1980s the Marcos government separated western Negros into two provinces, Negros del Norte with its capital at Cadiz City and Negros Occidental.

19. Rosanne Ruttan, Women Workers on Hacienda Milagros: Wage Labor and Household Subsistence on a Philippine Sugarcane Plantation , Publikatieserie Zuid- en Zuidoost-Asië, Anthropologisch-Sociologisch Centrum, no. 30 (Amsterdam: University of Amsterdam, 1982), pp. 17-18. See also Norman W. Schul, "A Philippine Sugar Cane Plantation: Land Tenure and Sugar Cane Production," Economic Geography 43 (April 1967): 157-69.

20. Violeta Lopez-Gonzaga, Crisis in Sugarlandia: The Planters' Differential Perceptions and Responses and Their Impact on Sugarcane Workers' Households (Bacolod: La Salle Social Research Center, 1964).

21. The more even rainfall in northern Negros contributes to its higher yields and a longer milling season; meanwhile San Carlos, which receives somewhat less rain than other districts and has a shorter milling season, is one of the only districts to make significant use of irrigation (Wernstedt, "Agricultural Regionalism," pp. 141, 169-77).