1. YM , 46; GS memo to chief of staff, "Letter from Prime Minister to General MacArthur," Apr. 19, 1951, NRAS, GS file, RG 331, Box 2187. Yoshida asserted in his memoirs that he did not actually have the opportunity to give the letter to MacArthur before the general's recall but did discuss the subject with him ( YM , 252).

2. Unsigned ltr. from Yoshida to MacArthur, Apr. 9, 1951, NRAS, GS file, RG 331, Box 2187. Yoshida later told a trusted official that MacArthur did not agree with all the things he had been instructed to do during the occupation (Watanabe T., Watanabe Takeshi nikki , 666). Yoshida's daughter thought that her father wrote the letter because he wanted to rescue the general from some of the "excesses" committed during the occupation (int. with Aso Kazuko).

3. GS memo to chief of staff, Apr. 23, 1951, NRAS, GS file, RG 331, Box 2187. Sodei described at length Yoshida's "last attempt to mutilate MacArthur's reforms" ( Senryo , 215-218) and observed that MacArthur made no concession other than to "fade away."

4. Sebald ltr. to Johnson, Aug. 3, 1951, DOS file 794.00/8-351, NRAW; Johnson ltr. to Sebald, June 16, 1951, DOS file 794.00/8-351, NRAW.

5. Ridgway, Soldier , 225; Ridgway memo of conversation with Yoshida, Jan. 1, 1952, Ridgway file, Army War College Library, Carlisle Barracks, Pa.

6. Ridgway, Soldier , 226-228.

7. FRUS, 1951 , vol. 6, no. 1, 1022-1023; YM , 46-47; Dower, Empire , 559, fn. 105.

8. FRUS, 1951 , vol. 6, no. 1, 1045-1049, 1138-1141, 1328-1329; Baerwald, The Purge , 79.

9. YM , 147-166; Masumi, Postwar Politics , 274-276, 279-281; Montgomery, Forced to Be Free , 48.

10. Ridgway, Soldier , 226; KJ , vol. 2, 180; Dower, Empire , 432. Yoshida told his staff he would not consider any specific plans and budgets for force increases of more than 50,000 a year (CAS memo to CofS, Feb. 23, 1952, with memo for record by Kowalski, file GS [B] 04394, NDLT; FRUS, 1952-1954 , vol. 14, no. 2, 1232). It was characteristic of Yoshida that he did not shrink from entering into vague understandings that required action in the future. By playing the artful dodger, he could get past the immediate hurdle.

11. Dower, Empire , 386; Weinstein, "Defense Policy," 167; Rusk-Okazaki memo, Feb. 11, 1952, NRAW, DOS file, 794.5/2-1152; Welfield, An Empire , 70.

12. NSC 125/2, Feb. 21, 1952, FRUS, 1952 , vol. 14, no. 2, 1300-1308.

13. FRUS, 1951 , vol. 6, no. 1, 888-895, 898-900, 1001-1002, 1208-1215, 1330-1331.

14. FRUS, 1951 , vol. 6, no. 1, 1021-1022.

15. Ibid., 1024-1037, 1119-1133; Fearey, "Summary of the Negotiations," 287-289. Several issues, mostly technical, were still unsettled: fisheries, shipping, Japanese assets in Thailand, compensation for Allied wartime property losses, and reparations.

16. FRUS, 1951 , vol. 6, no. 1, 1171-1174; Fearey, "Summary of the Negotiations," 289.

17. FRUS, 1951 , vol. 6, no. 1, 1274; Sebald, With MacArthur , 136-149; Reischauer, The United States and Japan , 242-243.

18. FRUS, 1951 , vol. 6, no. 1, 1251, 1255-1256; Andrew Gordon, "Reparations for Southeast Asia," Kodansha Encyclopedia of Japan , vol. 6, 302.

19. FRUS, 1951 , vol. 6, no. 1, 1153-1155.

20. Nishimura, "Sanfuranshisuko kowa," 34; Takemae, GHQ , 202-204; FRUS, 1951 , vol. 6, no. 1, 857-858, 1227. The Japanese believed the security treaty should conform closely with the international obligations set out in the U.N. Charter and that the United States was imposing obligations in excess of charter requirements (Nishimura, "Ampo joyaku kaitei," 27).

21. FRUS, 1951 , vol. 6, no. 1, 860, 863. This provision was eliminated from the revised security treaty signed in 1960.

22. Sebald, With MacArthur , 280; Kosaka, Saisho Yoshida , 55-59, 69-71.

23. FRUS, 1951 , vol. 6, no. 1, 1207-1208.

24. Ibid., 873-874, 1235, 1242, 1248-1249, 1274; Sebald, With MacArthur , 271-272.

25. FRUS, 1951 , vol. 6, no. 1, 1275-1277.

26. Ibid.

27. Ibid., 1229-1230, 1299-1300.

28. Sebald, With MacArthur , 269; Fearey, "Summary of the Negotiations," 294-295.

29. Truman speech, DOSB , vol. 25, Sept. 17, 1951, 447-450; see U.S. Congress, Selected Speeches — Douglas MacArthur , 33-38, in which he reviewed the achievements of the occupation.

30. FRUS, 1951 , vol. 6, no. 1, 1315-1318.

31. Multilateral Japan Peace Treaty, signed Sept. 8, 1951, TIAS , vol. 3, part 3 (1952), 3169-3325; Dunn, Peace-Making , 183-184. Dulles told the Soviets that the United States would support Soviet claims to the Kuriles and South Sakhalin if the USSR became a party to the Japanese peace treaty ( FRUS, 1951 , vol. 6, no. 1,886).

32. Sebald, With MacArthur , 278-280; Nishimura, "Sanfuranshisuko kowa," 36.

33. FRUS, 1951 , vol. 6, no. 1, 1343-1344; Nishimura, Sanfuranshisuko heiwa , 272-278; Acheson, Present at the Creation , 547; Takemae, Senryo sengoshi , 17.

34. Nishimura, "Sanfuranshisuko kowa," 36; Inoki, Hyoden Yoshida , vol. 3, 418.

35. FRUS, 1951 , vol. 6, no. 1, 1339; James, The Years of MacArthur , vol. 3, 352; Dulles message to MacArthur, Sept. 6, 1951, MMA, RG 21.

36. Acheson, Present at the Creation , 544, 551; United States-Japan Security Treaty, signed Sept. 8, 1951, TIAS , vol. 3, part 3 (1952), 3329-3341.

37. KJ , vol. 3, 48-50; Inoki, Hyoden Yoshida , vol. 3, 418; Kosaka, Saisho Yoshida , 4. A year later Yoshida told the American ambassador that the emperor had advised him to give up cigars; Yoshida said in reply he had no intention of doing so (Murphy desp., Sept. 13, 1952, NRAW, DOS file, RG 59, Box 4246).

38. Nishimura, "Sanfuranshisuko kowa," 37. (See Packard, Protest , 252-302.)

39. DOSB , vol. 25, Sept. 17, 1951, 465.

40. FRUS, 1951 , vol. 6, no. 1,250-251; NYT , Sept. 9, 1951, 1, 22, 25, 28.

41. Yomiuri , Aug. 13, 1979, 10.

42. Iriye, The Cold War , 93-97, 182-191.

43. Igarashi, "Peace Making," 11, no. 2 (Summer 1985), 323-356; Masumi, Postwar Politics , 218. See Williams, "Diet Interpellations on the Peace and Security Treaties," memos dated Oct. 19 and Oct. 28, 1951, JWC.

44. FRUS, 1951 , vol. 6, no. 1, 1416-1418, 1347, editorial note; Nishimura, Sanfuranshisuko heiwa , 312-326; W. Cohen, "China," 40.

45. FRUS, 1951 , vol. 6, no. 1, 1437-1439.

46. Ibid., 1443-1446. As early as May 1951 Yoshida had indicated that Japan would not make a treaty with the PRC but would make peace with the ROC ( FRUS, 1951 , vol. 6, no. 1, 1050). On December 13, 1951, Yoshida handed Dulles a short draft treaty Japan proposed to negotiate with the Nationalist government after the multilateral treaty came into force, but Dulles paid little attention to it (ibid., 1436-1437; SD , Dec. 13, 1951). Nevertheless, the impression remains strong in Japan and among foreign scholars that the United States pressured Yoshida into agreeing to make a treaty with the ROC (Masumi, Postwar Politics , 217-218). Dower pointed out that Yoshida may have been ambivalent about the China issue ( Empire , 404).

47. FRUS, 1951 , vol. 6, no. 1, 1446-1447, 1467-1470.

48. Ibid., 1465-1467. Yoshida remained worried about his letter. He wrote to Dulles on Dec. 27 urging that the United States and the United Kingdom reach agreement on China policy, with which Japan would go along for the sake of a common front of the free nations (ibid., 1471-1472; SD , Dec. 27, 1951).

49. FRUS, 1952 , vol. 14, no. 2, 1077-1080, memo of Jan. 10, 1952, Eden-Dulles meeting.

50. Acheson, Present at the Creation , 772; Schonberger, Aftermath of War , 275-276; SD , Jan. 15, 1952.

51. Buckley, Occupation Diplomacy , 181.

52. FRUS, 1952-1954 , vol. 14, no. 2, 1248; Usui, "Postwar Japan-China Relations," Kodansha Encyclopedia of Japan , vol. 1,290.

53. FRUS, 1952-1954 , vol. 14, no. 2, 1251-1252, 1259-1262; Owada Hisashi, "Korea-Japan Treaty of 1965," and Soon Sung Cho, "Korea-Japan Treaty of 1965, Supplementary Agreements," Kodansha Encyclopedia of Japan , vol. 4, 287-288.

54. Text of administrative agreement, TIAS , vol. 3, part 4 (1952), 3341-3419; FRUS, 1952-1954 , vol. 14, no. 2, 1197-1206.

55. DA tel. W 87569 to CINCFE, Aug. 1, 1950, MMA, RG 9, radiograms; CINCFE tel. 021209 to DA, Aug. 2, 1950, MMA, RG 9; J. Williams, Japan's Political Revolution , 278-279.

56. NYT , May 2, 1952, 1, 3; Asahi shimbun , May 2, 1952, 1; Shinobu, Sengo Nihon seijishi , vol. 4, 1432.