1. Daniel R. Brower, The New Jacobins: The French Communist Party and the Popular Front (Ithaca, N.Y., 1968); Fernando Claudin, The Communist Movement from Comintern to Cominform, trans. Brian Pearce (New York, 1975), 1:166-242; Jacques Fauvet, Histoire du parti communiste français (Paris, 1964), 1:152-268; Jacques Danos and Marcel Gibelin, Juin 1936, 2 vols. (Paris, 1952; reprint 1972); George Ross, Workers and Communists in France: From Popular Front to Eurocommunism (Berkeley, Calif., 1982), 1-11; Georges Lefranc, Histoire du front populaire (Paris, 1965); Daniel Guérin

Front populaire, révolution manquée (Paris, 1963; reprint 1970); Jean Gacon, "1934-1938: Le Front populaire en France comme mouvement populaire," Cahiers d'histoire de l'Institut Maurice Thorez, no. 5 (October-November 1973): 44-56; Annie Kriegel, "Front populaire," Mouvement social, no. 54 (January-March 1966).

2. Ronald Tiersky, French Communism, 1920-1972 (New York, 1974), 54-95; Michelle Perrot and Annie Kriegel, Le Socialisme français et le pouvoir (Paris, 1966); George Lichtheim, Marxism in Modern France (New York, 1966), 34-68; Nicole Racine and Louis Bodin, Le Parti communiste français pendant l'entre-deux-guerres (Paris, 1972), 205-262.

3. Letter from Rolland to Maurice Thorez, 12 July 1936, published as "Une Lettre de Romain Rolland," Cahiers du bolchevisme, no. 12-13 (25 July 1936): 879; Maurice Thorez, Fils du peuple (Paris, 1937).

4. Letters from Rolland to Sergei Dinamov, 1 October 1935, in Literaturna nasledstvo (Literary heritage) (Moscow, 1969), 324-325; to Alfred Kurella, 14 February 1936, ibid., 326; to Jean-Richard Bloch, 10 October 1936, ARR.

3. Letter from Rolland to Maurice Thorez, 12 July 1936, published as "Une Lettre de Romain Rolland," Cahiers du bolchevisme, no. 12-13 (25 July 1936): 879; Maurice Thorez, Fils du peuple (Paris, 1937).

4. Letters from Rolland to Sergei Dinamov, 1 October 1935, in Literaturna nasledstvo (Literary heritage) (Moscow, 1969), 324-325; to Alfred Kurella, 14 February 1936, ibid., 326; to Jean-Richard Bloch, 10 October 1936, ARR.

5. Letters from Rolland to Jean Guéhenno, 24 March 1936, 2 April 1936, 31 December 1936, JG-RR 373-374, 376, 378.

6. André Gide, Retour de l'U.R.S.S. (Paris, 1936); André Gide, "Avantpropos du Retour de l'U.R.S.S., " Vendredi, 6 November 1936; Claude Naville, André Gide et le communisme (Paris, 1936); Jean Guéhenno, "Lettre ouverte à André Gide," Vendredi, 17 December 1937; Jean Guéhenno, "Réponse à André Gide," Vendredi, 24 December 1937; Georges Friedmann, "Gide et l'U.R.S.S.," Europe, 15 January 1937, 5-29. For a full discussion, see Frederick J. Harris, André Gide and Romain Rolland: Two Men Divided (New Brunswick, N.J., 1973), 110-165.

7. Romain Rolland, "L'U.R.S.S. en a vu bien d'autres. Une Lettre de Romain Rolland à propos du livre d'André Gide," L'Humanité, 18 January 1937, 1; English trans. in Harris, André Gide and Romain Rolland, 154-155.

8. Rolland, "L'U.R.S.S. en a vu bien d'autres," 1.

9. Ibid.; also see letters from Rolland to Lucien Roth, 31 December 1936; to Georges Friedmann, 4 January 1937; conversation with Louis Aragon, 29 June 1937, ARR; letter from Rolland to Guéhenno, 29 December 1937, JG-RR 380-381.

8. Rolland, "L'U.R.S.S. en a vu bien d'autres," 1.

9. Ibid.; also see letters from Rolland to Lucien Roth, 31 December 1936; to Georges Friedmann, 4 January 1937; conversation with Louis Aragon, 29 June 1937, ARR; letter from Rolland to Guéhenno, 29 December 1937, JG-RR 380-381.

10. André Gide, Retouches à mon retour de l'U.R.S.S. (Paris, 1937; reprint 1978), 95, 146; also see André Gide, Littérature engagée (Paris, 1950).

11. Romain Rolland, "Romain Rolland, Largo Caballero, La Pasionaria saluent l'U.R.S.S., la grande patrie du socialisme," L'Humanité, 25 January 1937, 4.

12. Romain Rolland, "L'Adresse de Romain Rolland à la conference nationale du parti communiste," L'Humanité, 25 January 1937, 6.

13. Letters from Henri Guilbeaux to Rolland, 17 February 1936, 3 September 1936, 22 September 1936, ARR.

14. Henri Guilbeaux, La Fin des Soviets (Paris, 1937), 27-48.

15. Letter from Rolland to Guilbeaux, 4 May 1937, ARR; see Lucien Roth's review of Guilbeaux's La Fin des Soviets in Feuilles libres de la quinzaine, no. 40 (10 July 1937): 186; letter from Rolland to Roth, 18 September 1937, ARR.

16. Romain Rolland, "Brief an einen Australier," Die neue Weltbühne 33

no. 7 (11 February 1937): 219; Rolland, "La Grand Voix de Romain Rolland appelle à l'aide pour sauver de la hache Rembts et Stamm," L'Humanité , 12 June 1937, 3; Rolland, "Un Appel de Romain Rolland. Sauvez de la hache les otages allemands de la paix," L'Humanité , 11 October 1937, 3, also published in N. Marceau, Cinq Ans de dictature hitlérienne (Paris, 1938), 31-32.

17. Romain Rolland, "Romain Rolland salue de IXe Congrès du parti communiste français," L'Humanité , 25 December 1937, 1.

18. Georges Sadoul, "Maîtres de la culture. Compagnons de route par Romain Rolland," L'Humanité , 11 December 1937, 8.

19. I have followed accounts of the trials in Roy A. Medvedev, Let History Judge: The Origins and Consequences of Stalinism , trans. Colleen Taylor (New York, 1972), 152-239; Robert Conquest, The Great Terror: Stalin's Purge of the Thirties (New York, 1968); Isaac Deutscher, Stalin: A Political Biography (New York, 1967), 345-385, 414-460.

20. Letter from Rolland to Liliane Fearn, 14 October 1936, ARR; Romain Rolland had made a similar accusation about the role of revolutionary anarchists and Trotskyists in Spain; see letter to Bloch, 15 February 1936, ARR.

21. Letter from Rolland to Count Michel Karolyi, 12 February 1937, ARR; also see Le Procès du centre antisoviétique trotskiste (Paris, 1936). Letter from Rolland to Jean Courregelongue, 18 March 1937, ARR; in a journal extract dated 27 January 1937, Romain Rolland stated that he was unconvinced by Pierre Dominique's characterization of Stalin as un-Leninist, Bonapartist, imperialist, and militarist (ARR).

22. Letter from Rolland to Karolyi, 12 February 1937, ARR.

23. Ibid.

22. Letter from Rolland to Karolyi, 12 February 1937, ARR.

23. Ibid.

24. Letter from Rolland to Madeleine Rolland, 4 August 1937, BV , 353.

25. Letter from Rolland to Karolyi, 12 February 1937, ARR.

26. Letter from Rolland to Georgi Dimitrov, 29 December 1937, sent via Maurice Thorez, ARR.

27. Ibid; letter from Rolland to Thorez, 10 February 1938, ARR.

26. Letter from Rolland to Georgi Dimitrov, 29 December 1937, sent via Maurice Thorez, ARR.

27. Ibid; letter from Rolland to Thorez, 10 February 1938, ARR.

28. Letter from Hermann Hesse to Rolland, 3 March 1938, HH-RR , 163-164.

29. Letter from Rolland to Hesse, 5 March 1938, HH-RR , 165.

30. Letters from Rolland to Bloch, 3 March 1938; from Rolland to Friedmann, 7 March 1938, ARR.

31. Letter from Rolland to Courregelongue, 15 November 1937, ARR.

32. Letter from Rolland to Toshihiko Katayama, 8 December 1937, BV , 354-355.

33. Romain Rolland, "La Mission de la France dans le monde. Un Appel de Romain Rolland," L'Humanité , 31 March 1938, 1.

34. Letter from Rolland to Léon Moussinac, 27 April 1938, ARR.

35. Romain Rolland, "Télégramme à Daladier et à Chamberlain," in Jean Giono, "Précisions," Cahiers du contadour , no. 7 (November 1938): 4, dated early September 1938, and also signed by Paul Langevin and Francis Jourdain; reprinted in Jean Giono, Précisions (Paris, 1939), 8-9.

36. Alain, Jean Giono, Victor Margueritte, "Télégramme à Daladier et à Chamberlain," reprinted in Giono's Précisions , 9-10. Curiously, Romain Rolland, Alain, and Giono had together signed an antiwar protest: "Contre

la guerre, Romain Rolland au côté des instituteurs," L'Oeuvre , 1 October 1938, cited in Giono, Précisions , 6. In a letter written to Guillaume Boniface, 3 September 1937, Romain Rolland strongly objected to Giono's pacifism, seeing it as a "puerility unworthy of a literary man. Let him not imagine that their shepherd's crook will disarm the threatening and degrading fascisms" (ARR).

37. Romain Rolland, "La 'Paix' de Munich est une capitulation dégradante," L'Humanité , 14 October 1938, 1.

38. Letter from Rolland to Francis Vogarde, 23 September 1938, ARR; also see letter from Rolland to Naoum Aronson, 5 December 1938, BV 357-358.

39. Romain Rolland, "Deuil sur l'Europe," Europe , no. 49 (15 April 1939): 433-434; reprinted in Europe , no. 533-534 (September-October 1973): 169-170. Also see his address to the National Congress of the Amsterdam-Pleyel movement, 11-13 November 1938, published in L'Humanité , 13 November 1938. See also Romain Rolland, "Appel. Du 15 au 22 janvier semaine nationale de solidarité. Un Appel de Romain Rolland," L'Humanité , 14 January 1939, 3.

40. Letters from Rolland to Thorez, 28 November 1938, and 20 March 1939, ARR.

41. Romain Rolland, "Préface" (October 1938), Robespierre (Paris, 1939), 7; parts of Robespierre were published in Europe , February-March 1939, 145-162, 289-298; in International Literature , no. 7 (July 1939): 3-8; and in Commune (January-April 1939): 1-14, 506, 633.

42. Romain Rolland, "La Parole est à l'histoire" (1 January 1939), Robespierre , 312; also see "Félicitations de Romain Rolland après la création du Robespierre à la radio," L'Humanité , 16 August 1939; Rolland, "Préface," in N. Marceau, L'Allemagne et la Révolution française (Paris, 1939), 9-15.

43. Rolland, "Préface," Robespierre , 8.

44. Rolland, Robespierre , 286-287. On the influence of Rousseau on Robespierre, see Romain Rolland, "Jean-Jacques Rousseau," introduction to The Living Thoughts of Rousseau , ed. Romain Rolland (London, 1939), 1-2, 24.

45. Rolland, "La Parole est à l'histoire," 315-317; Rolland, Robespierre , 286.

46. Rolland, Robespierre , 63, 88.

47. Ibid., 180, 300, 258.

48. Ibid., 162; also see Rolland, "Préface," Robespierre , 8.

46. Rolland, Robespierre , 63, 88.

47. Ibid., 180, 300, 258.

48. Ibid., 162; also see Rolland, "Préface," Robespierre , 8.

46. Rolland, Robespierre , 63, 88.

47. Ibid., 180, 300, 258.

48. Ibid., 162; also see Rolland, "Préface," Robespierre , 8.

49. Walter Laqueur and George L. Mosse, eds., The Left-Wing Intellectuals Between the Wars, 1919-1939 (New York, 1966); also see Jürgen Rühle, Literature and Revolution: A Critical Study of the Writer and Communism in the Twentieth Century , trans. Jean Steinberg (London, 1969).

50. Richard Crossman, ed., The God That Failed (New York, 1950), 1-10; David Caute, The Fellow Travellers: A Postscript to the Enlightenment (New York, 1973), 250-266; Paul Hollander, Political Pilgrims: Travels of Western Intellectuals to the Soviet Union, China, and Cuba (New York, 1981), 70-176, 400-437; Irving Howe, "Intellectuals, Dissent, and Bureaucrats," Dissent , Summer 1984, 303-308.

51. Romain Rolland, "Nécessité de la révolution," Europe , 15 July 1939, 289-302.

52. Ibid.

53. Ibid.

51. Romain Rolland, "Nécessité de la révolution," Europe , 15 July 1939, 289-302.

52. Ibid.

53. Ibid.

51. Romain Rolland, "Nécessité de la révolution," Europe , 15 July 1939, 289-302.

52. Ibid.

53. Ibid.

54. Letter from Rolland to Jean Cassou, 30 August 1939, ARR.

55. Ibid.

56. Ibid.

57. Ibid.

54. Letter from Rolland to Jean Cassou, 30 August 1939, ARR.

55. Ibid.

56. Ibid.

57. Ibid.

54. Letter from Rolland to Jean Cassou, 30 August 1939, ARR.

55. Ibid.

56. Ibid.

57. Ibid.

54. Letter from Rolland to Jean Cassou, 30 August 1939, ARR.

55. Ibid.

56. Ibid.

57. Ibid.

58. Letter from Rolland to Friedmann, 19 September 1939, ARR.

59. Romain Rolland, "Lettre adressé par Romain Rolland au président Daladier" (3 September 1939), Le Temps , 19 September 1939.

60. Romain Rolland, "Adresse de Romain Rolland à la jeunesse française," L'Avant-garde , 20 January 1939, 1; letter from Rolland to Charles Baudouin, 15 September 1939, ARR; "Deux Heures avec Romain Rolland au pays de Colas Breugnon," L'Avant-garde , 16 June 1939, 1, 5.

61. Letters from Rolland to Clara Beerli, 29 January 1939; to Baudouin, 10 January 1940; to Georges Duhamel, 7 November 1939, ARR.

62. Letter from Rolland to Bloch, 20 November 1939, ARR.