1. Pilar Riaño-Alcalá ("Urban Space and Music in the Formation of Youth Cultures: The Case of Bogotá, 1920-1980," Studies in Latin American Popular Culture 10 [1991]: 87-106) notes that Colombia also had a native rock festival at about this time, but she fails to provide a date. Puerto Rico was used as a backdrop for U.S. rock festivals in July 1970 and April 1972. Yet Saigon can claim credit for being the first Third World city to sponsor its own rock festival. That event featured bands from South Vietnam, Taiwan, Malaysia, the Philippines, Indonesia, and Australia. Rolling Stone reported that the one-day con-

cert was "a definite copy of festivals stateside" and cited protest from the opposition press: "This festival legalizes a degenerate foreign culture which is harmful to Vietnamese culture and tradition" ("The Saigon Rock Festival Rolls," Rolling Stone, 8 July 1971, 16). Estimates of the number of people at Avándaro vary. Víctor Roura states that 500,000 attended( Apuntes de rock: Por las calles del mundo [Mexico City: Ediciones Nuevomar, 1985], 27); Carlos Monsiváis, 300,000 ("No es que esté feo, sino que estoy mal envuelto, je-je," La Cultura en México, 14 January 1976, 3); and Federico Arana, 150,000 ( Guaraches de ante azul: Historla del rock mexicano [Mexico City: Posada, 1985], vol. 3, 100). Meanwhile, Variety, calling the festival "a carbon of Woodstock,'' placed the number at 180,000 ("Rock Festival in Mexico Draws 180,000 Youths in a Carbon of Woodstock," Variety, 29 September 1971, 49).

2. According to Armando Molina (interview with the author, Mexico City, 17 June 1993), who was hired to contract bands for the event, the organizers had little intention of promoting rock per se; the idea was simply to organize a "Mexican Night" of revelry to "commemorate and complement" the annual car races held at the Valle de Bravo site. Still, the precedent for Coca-Cola's involvement in a Latin American rock festival was set a year earlier when the soft-drink conglomerate cosponsored the "Rock Festival '70" (featuring U.S. bands) in Puerto Rico ("July 4 Rock Festival Set for Puerto Rico with Coca-Cola Coin," Variety, 10 June 1970, 56).

3. Quoted in Eligio Calderón and others, Avándaro: ¿Aliviane o movida? (Mexico City: Editorial Extemporáneos, 1971), 85-86. Sections of this book also appeared in "Una guerra sin soldados," La Cultura en México, 6 October 1971, 2-7.

4. The film version of Woodstock produced by Warner Brothers and the sound track released by Atlantic Records recuperated losses incurred from the festival itself and in general spurred a closer relationship between capitalist interests and the counterculture. See Rolling Stone, 21 January 1970; 7 February 1970; 15 October 1970.

5. Herbe Pompeyo, interview with the author, Mexico City, 8 June 1993.

6. The song was written by Lalo Guerrero and later appeared in the film Zoot Suit . The lines from the song go in part, "I like marihuana, you like marihuana, we like marihuana too!" However, Peace and Love apparently added the line: "I want to be a hippie and I want to get stoned." This was all sung in English.

7. Luis de Llano Jr. of Telesistema afterward defended the television station's position by stating: "I went to Avándaro to produce a film for television. I brought my equipment to do this, and I want to clarify that we aren't trying to exalt the negative side which the festival has had" (Roberto Ramírez S., "La reunón de más de cien mil jóvenes en el festival musical de Avándaro sí rue autorizada," Excélsior, 20 September 1971, B15). According to Armando Molina, Telesistema filmed during the day on Friday and from around 7: 00 P.M. to 1: 00 A.M. the night of the festival. The event itself lasted all night long, unlike the Woodstock festival, which paused until morning.

8. Luis González Reimann, "Ceremonia cósmica, poca música," Piedra Rodante, 30 October 1971, 18.

9. Marcos Mendoza, "Paz, amor: Cortesía de Coca-Cola," Piedra Rodante, 30 October 1971, 26. For a photograph of the Coke banner see Humberto Rubalcaba and others, eds., Nosotros (Mexico City: Nosotros, 1972).

10. Javier Batiz famously rejected the amount as too little for his services.

11. While the real political stakes were arguably quite different for Avándaro and Woodstock, I believe a similar rejection of explicit political organizing by those present applied to both festivals. Rock was seen by most bands and fans as an alternative to politics rather than as a vehicle for political activism. Political speeches that fell out of line with the anarchic mood of a rock performance were often rejected; Abbie Hoffman was clubbed off stage at Woodstock by guitarist Pete Townshend of the Who. See Abbie Hoffman, Woodstock Nation (New York: Vintage, 1969); and Greil Marcus, "The Woodstock Festival," Rolling Stone, 20 September 1969, 16-18. On the other hand, politicians have since sought to appropriate rock music as a campaign tactic. This was true also in Mexico beginning in the 1980s, when the PRI, as well as leftwing parties, began to sponsor rock events (see the conclusions).

12. Quoted in Elena Poniatowska, "Avándaro," Plural 1, no. 1 (1971), 37.

13. Calderón and others, Avándaro, 38.

14. Ibid.

13. Calderón and others, Avándaro, 38.

14. Ibid.

15. In fact, the police would later be criticized for not arresting drug users and allegedly even for distributing marijuana. Reports of the actual number of soldiers and police are mixed. One report put the total number at 530: 120 federal soldiers, 50 judiciales, 350 general police, and various transit agents ("En Avándaro, una juerga increíble," Excélsior, 12 September 1971, A17). Another report, cited by Piedra Rodante as the official statement by the attorney general, noted the presence of "more than 800 police elements, belonging to the federal and state judiciales, Department of Interior Affairs, General Public Security Agency, State Police, Municipal Police, and elements of the army" ("Fiestas: 21 muertos, 665 heridos, 275 arrestados," Piedra Rodante, 30 October 1971, 10). An earlier story in Excélsior reported that "Just before arriving in the Valle de Bravo one sees soldiers from the 43d Infantry Battalion, who number [some] 1,200 and were mobilized under the orders of Colonel Javier Vãzquez Félix" (''La locura del rock en Avãndaro," Excélsior, 11 September 1971, A4). Finally, Variety claimed that the "fest was guarded by more than 700 soldiers" ("Rock Festival").

16. Quoted in Poniatowska, "Avãndaro," 37.

17. González Reimann, "Ceremonia cósmica," 22.

18. Oscar Sarquiz, "Humillacíon, fraude con los músicos," Piedra Rodante, 30 October 1971, 16. It was estimated that one-third of all Mexico City youth between the ages of fifteen and twenty were present ("Castigo a los organizadores," Excélsior, 18 September 1971, A1).

19. Sol Arguedas, "Lodo sobre lodo," La Cultura en México, 6 October 1971, 7-9.

20. Calderón and others, Avándaro, 28-29.

21. Excélsior, for example, claimed that 93 percent of the audience were men (Raúl Cervantes, "Avándaro, insuficiente para albergar a los espectadores del festival 'Pop,' " Excélsior, 12 September 1971, B25).

22. Poniatowska, "Avándaro," 39.

23. Lila Orta, interview with the author, Mexico City, 13 January 1993.

24. Orta, interview.

25. Piedra Rodante, 30 October 1971, 24. The Spanish text reads: "¡Qué buen patín agarró la torta ésa!"

26. Quoted in Poniatowska, "Avándaro," 40.

27. José Enrique Pérez Cruz, interview with the author, Mexico City, 5 March 1993.

28. Catherine LeGrande, telephone interview with the author, 16 February 1995. In the interview, LeGrande mispronounced "Avándaro" (stressing the fourth syllable), reflecting how she probably remembered her pronunciation at the time, when she was just learning to speak Spanish.

29. Rubalcaba and others, Nosotros . This commemorative collection of photographs and text from the event was apparently published with the collaboration, at least in part, of Telesistema. Jacobo Zabludovsky, creator and anchorman for Telesistema's nightly news broadcast, 24 horas —which first aired on 7 September 1970—wrote the opening editorial for the book. Also noteworthy were the high production quality of the photographs and the fact that 10,000 copies were printed, an extraordinary quantity for any print run in Mexico. In an interview, Luis de Llano Jr. stated categorically that Telesistema was not directly responsible for the book's publication, thus countering a rumor that was widely circulated during the period of my research. Luis de Llano Jr., interview with Andrew Paxman, Mexico City, 18 December 1997.

30. Pérez Cruz, interview.

31. A 1967 Mexican law prohibited all nonofficial usage of the national flag, anthem, and coat of arms ("Respeto a la bandera, al himno y al escudo nacionales," Jueves de Excélsior, 28 December 1967, 5). For an instance of an individual's being prosecuted for illegal appropriation of the U.S. flag see "19-Yr. Old Busted in Mass. for Using Flag as Patch on Pants," Rolling Stone, 2 April 1970, 4. Jimi Hendrix's widely commodified, acid-rock rendition of the national anthem at Woodstock became a landmark reference point for the counterculture in the United States and elsewhere.

32. U.S. and British flags were present, both on T-shirts and hanging from posts. And at least one Canadian flag can also be spotted in photographs. One observer commented on "the large numbers of foreigners, above all from the U.S. and Britain." However, this remark should be taken in the context of negative reaction to the festival as "colonialist." Although some foreigners were indeed present, my sense is that the foreign flags belonged overwhelmingly to Mexicans. See Cervantes, "Avándaro."

33. See also "El símbolo de la paz," POP, 25 February 1971, 3.

34. A fifteen-minute color video of Avándaro (transferred from 8 mm) is

available from Sergio García, at the Tianguis del Chopo rock flea market in Mexico City. A 16 mm black-and-white film is in the Filmoteca Archives of the UNAM. Both make reference to the use of the U.S. flag. See also Rubalcaba and others, Nosotros . While this book was in press I also received news of a newly released documentary, A 25 años de Avándaro . See Hugo Lazcano, "Muestran Avándaro," Reforma, 14 September 1996, E5.

35. Armando Molina, "Rock chicano '71," POP, 14 January 1972, 8-10.

36. Enrique Marroquín, " 'Dios quiere que Ilueva para unirnos,' " Piedra Rodante, 3 October 1971, 12. Marroquín was a liberal priest who publicly supported the youth counterculture. See also Enrique Marroquín, La contracultura como protesta: Análisis de un fenómeno juvenil (Mexico City: Joaquín Mortiz, 1975), 47-51. Significantly, on the Día de la Raza (celebrated in the United States as Columbus Day) a native rock festival has been held annually for many years. This takes place at the base of the National Monument to the Revolution in Mexico City.

37. For a reproduction of the promotional pamphlet for Avándaro see Luis Carrión and Graciela Iturbide, Avándaro (Mexico City: Diógenes, 1971). The original promotional pamphlet from Woodstock was photocopied, with permission, from the personal archives of Mitch Blank of New York City.

38. See Marroquín, "Dios quiere," 11. References to Woodstock abounded in the criticism and support of the festival that followed. See for example, José Emilio Pacheco, "Woodstocktlán: Pintar el coco y luego tenerle miedo," Excélsior, 18 September 1971, A7. While Polydor distributed the live album (pressed in Mexico), the film of Woodstock was banned for several years.

39. Calderón and others, Avándaro, 17.

40. "Festival de rock y ruedas en Avándaro," in Carrión and Iturbide, Avándaro, n.p.

41. From the movie Woodstock (Dir. Michael Wadleigh, 1970).

42. Compare Fredrick B. Pike, The United States and Latin America: Myths and Stereotypes of Civilization and Nature (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1992), esp. chap. 9.

43. Editorial, "Culpables de la orgía de Avándaro," Jueves de Excélsior, 23 September 1971, 5.

44. "Moya reprueba lo de Avándaro; la procuraduría investiga," Excélsior, 14 September 1971, A1.

45. Jesus Pavlo Tenorio, "Avándaro 1991: Veinte años después," Jueves de Excélsior, 23 September 1971, 14-15.

46. Quoted in "Avándaro y el fascismo," Siempre, 29 September 1971, 55. Interestingly, no author was given for the article (which in fact denounced the Puebla meeting as "fascistic").

47. "Moya reprueba lo de Avándaro."

48. "Avándaro '71, gobierno, iglesia, padres de familia: Todos hemos sido culpables de esto!" Siempre, 29 September 1971, 9.

49. Letter to the editor, Siempre, 22 September 1971, 4.

50. Alberto Domingo, "Avándaro: ¿Una conjura política?" Siempre, 29 Sep-

tember 1971, 22-23. According to Domingo, attacks on Hank González were instigated by local political interests threatened by reforms González was instituting as governor.

51. Quoted in Calderón and others, Avándaro, 19-20.

52. Ramírez, "Reunión." Advertisements for lots on which to build private country estates at Avándaro first appeared in Mexico City newspapers in the early 1950s; one labeled it "The Dream City" ( Excélsior, 21 May 1954, A15).

53. Pérez Cruz, interview.

54. Arana, Guaraches, vol. 3, 109.

55. "Medidas de seguridad," from the pamphlet "Festival de rock."

56. This more conspiratorial view came through in several interviews. One informant, Armando Blanco (interview with the author, Mexico City, 11 March 1993), went so far as to suggest that Echeverría had assembled the nation's leading social and cultural critics for a "private live screening" of the concert at the president's office. A more cynical but certainly no less fantastic view is that Echeverría authorized the festival precisely in order to produce a backlash that warranted a fullfledged crackdown on the rock movement itself.

57. From the provincial newspaper, El Diario de Puebla, quoted in Arana, Guaraches, vol. 3, 136.

58. Pedro Ocampo Ramírez, "Los jóvenes y el anti-Avándaro," Jueves de Excélsior, 30 September 1971, 8.

59. Luis Cervantes Cabeza de Vaca, "La fuga de la realidad, la nausea," Siempre, 29 September 1971, 43.

60. Carlos Monsiváis, Amor perdido (Mexico City: Biblioteca Era, 1977), 251.

61. Carrión and Iturbide, Avándaro, n.p.

62. Pacheco, "Woodstocktlán." Relajo was a more printable expression for desmadre. See chapter 1 for a discussion of these terms.

63. Rubalcaba and others, Nosotros .

64. Enrique Marroquín, "Cultura pop y represión," Piedra Rodante, 15 November 1971, 29. His phrase, "por nuestra gente hablará el rock" was an explicit reappropriation of José Vasconcelos's famous statement: "Por mi raza hablará el espíritu." (Alan Knight translates this as, "By virtue of my race the spirit shall speak" [''Racism, Revolution, and Indigenismo: Mexico, 1910-1940," in Richard Graham, ed., The Idea of Race in Latin America, 1870-1940 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1990), 92].)

65. Ricardo Garibay, "Dar juntos la batalla: Urgencia del diálogo entre la juventud y el poder," Excélsior, 28 October 1971, 6.

66. Quoted in José Agustín, La contracultura en México: La historia y el significado de los rebeldes sin causa, los jipitecas, los punks y las bandas (Mexico City: Grijalbo, 1996), 88-89.

67. Carlos Monsiváis, "Carlos Monsiváis refuta a C.M.," La Edad del Rock, 30 November 1971, 25.

68. Three Souls in My Mind (Discos Cisne-Raff, 1971).

69. "Colonialismo cultural," Excélsior, 14 September 1971, A6.

70. Cervantes Cabeza de Vaca, "Fuga de la realidad."

71. Quoted in Arana, Guaraches, vol. 3, 127. For the magazine's earlier criticism of the government in 1968 see "Esta es ¡la verdad!," ¿Porqué? Special issue, 1968, n.p.

72. José Agustín, Tragicomedia mexicana 2: La vida en México de 1970 a 1982 (Mexico City: Planeta, 1992), 17.

73. Jueves de Excélsior, 24 February 1972. Charro means, roughly, "cowboy."

74. Pompeyo, interview.

75. Agustín Salmón, "Prohibieron la grabación de la música que se tocó en Avándaro," Excélsior, 23 September 1971, B10.

76. The song was written in English and Spanish by the group Rosario. The English version actually loses much of the sentiment conveyed by the Spanish version, and it contains several grammatical errors. Thus the version I have used incorporates my translation from the Spanish, which I based on the linguistic structure of the original version in English.

77. "Telecomentarios," Excélsior, 19 September 1971, B21; Salmón, "Prohibieron la grabación"; Roberto Ramírez S., " 'Radio Juventud' aclara su intervención en Avándaro," Excélsior, 18 September 1971, B11.

78. "Exhortó a locutores para que hagan buen uso del lenguaje," Excélsior, 27 September l971, B15. The Federal Radio and Television Law, dating from 1960, required programming to "conserve national characteristics, the country's customs and traditions, the essence of language, and to exalt the values of Mexican nationality" ( El Diario Oficial, 19 January 1960, 2). See also chapter 1.

79. Ramírez, "Reunión." Ten minutes of the festival were actually shown on Telesistema's 24 horas news program the following night, but Emilio Azcárraga Milmo confiscated the tapes and locked them away in a company vault. Luis de Llano Jr. tried on several occasions to persuade Azcárraga to release the tapes, but he always refused to do so (de Llano, interview).

80. Luis de Llano Jr. later explained in an interview: "It was all shot on videotape. At the time our technology was not that advanced, as well. We didn't have the lighting equipment that was necessary, and we didn't have the consoles to mix the sound correctly. So the sound was pretty bad, and the video was not that good, either" (de Llano, interview). Armando Molina was compensated for his organizing efforts with the rights to record an album from the festival, but a combination of government censorship and poor technical quality kept the album from being produced (Molina, interview).

81. Vivianne Klein, "Cotorreando con las grabadoras," POP, 14 January 1972, 44-46.

82. Pompeyo, interview.

83. Advertisement in Piedra Rodante, 30 October 1971.

84. "Expanding Int'l Disk Mkt. Still Strongly Regional in Tastes, Sez RCA's

Soria," Variety, 11 June 1969, 73. CBS Records, for example, used a bilingual advertising strategy to promote Carlos Santana's new album in the United States ( Rolling Stone, 23 November 1972, 40).

85. I reviewed this catalog at Polygram Studios in Mexico City. Unfortunately, it was the only available catalog for this entire period for all companies and the earliest one archived for Polygram. Outdated catalogs were simply thrown away. Not one company kept careful records of the quantity or market destinations of records sold.

86. Pompeyo, interview.

87. Pompeyo, interview.

88. Salmón, "Prohibieron la grabación."

89. Piedra Rodante, 15 May 1971, 4-5.

90. Piedra Rodante (January 1972). This issue did not have a specific date.

91. Piedra Rodante (October 1971). This issue did not have a specific date.

92. See Anne Rubenstein, Bad Language, Naked Ladies, and Other Threats to the Nation: A Political History of Comic Books in Mexico (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1998).

93. "Minutario, January-April 1972," 29 March, CCPRI; Roura, Apuntes de rock, 137-39. Curiously, Rolling Stone never mentioned the creation of a Mexican counterpart. When later queried on the issue, editors at Rolling Stone responded that they had no knowledge of the Mexican version (Eric Etheridge, senior features editor of Rolling Stone, letter to the author, 18 November 1992).

94. Marcos Mendoza, "Un chavo consigue el auditorio nacional," Piedra Rodante, October 1971, 25.

95. Joaquín ("Chas") López, interview with the author, Mexico City, 7 April 1993.

96. Ramón García, interview with the author, Mexico City, 18 March 1993.

97. García, interview. The "Rock sobre Ruedas" effort was organized by the bands Three Souls in My Mind (now the TRI) and Tinta Blanca.

98. Víctor Roura, Negros del corazón (Mexico City: Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana, 1984), 29.

99. Carlos Baca, "Rock subterráneo," México Canta, 16 June 1972, 4-5.

100. Roura, Apuntes de rock, 28. At the same time, however, Mexican rock performances still took place abroad. One year after Avándaro the group Three Souls in My Mind performed for a month in El Salvador with several other bands, including Peace and Love. To their surprise, songs by both Three Souls in My Mind and Peace and Love were already on the "Hit Parade" charts and were featured constantly on local radio (Alejandro Lora, with Arturo Castelazo, Lora: Vida y rocanrol ... en sus propias palabras [Mexico City: Castelazo y Asociados, 1993], 46-48).

101. "Páginas de la chaviza ondera," México Canta, 16 June 1972, 14.

102. Roura, Apuntes de rock, 44.

103. Roura, Negros del corazón, 28.

104. Iván Zatz-Díaz, interview with the author, New York City, 13 October 1992.

105. David Ramón, "¿Rock meshica? Un concierto Zapatista," Diorama de la Cultura (Sunday Supplement), Excélsior, 26 September 1971, 3.

106. López, interview.

107. Quoted in Roura, Apuntes de rock, 42.

108. See Fernando Reyes Matta, "The 'New Song' and Its Confrontation in Latin America," in C. Nelson and L. Grossberg, eds., Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1988), 447-60; Patricia Oliart and José A. Lloréns, "La nueva canción en el Perú," Comunicación y Cultura 12 (1984): 73-82; Jan Fairley, "La Nueva Canción latinoamericana," Bulletin of Latin American Research 3, no. 2 (1984): 107-15; Jan Fairley, "Annotated Bibliography of Latin-American Popular Music with Particular Reference to Chile and to Nueva Canción," Popular Music 5 (1985): 305-56; Jeffrey E. Taffet, " 'My Guitar Is not for the Rich': The New Chilean Song Movement and the Politics of Culture,'' Journal of American Culture 20, no. 2 (1997): 91-103.

109. Reyes Matta, " 'New Song,' " 448.

110. Oliart and Lloréns, "Nueva canción," 77.

111. Citing "new forms of alienation probably influenced by Western music and fashions," the Cuban government abruptly banned all U.S. and British pop music from the airwaves in 1973 ( Rolling Stone, 21 June 1973, 5). But even prior to this the slogan "Inside the Revolution, everything; Outside the Revolution, nothing" severely limited access to and popularization of "Western" music and fashions. See also Michele Mattelart, "El conformismo revoltoso de la canción popular," Cine Cubano 69/70 (1972): 144-55.

112. See Ariel Dorfman and Armand Mattelart, How to Read Donald Duck: Imperialist Ideology in the Disney Comic (New York: International General, 1991). Originally published in Chile in 1971, How to Read Donald Duck launched a leftist crusade against the influence of U.S.-inspired mass culture. Based on a structuralist interpretation of how mass culture "works," this early cultural-imperialist critique came under attack in the 1980s as new interpretations emerged. For an extremely useful discussion of the origins and historical development of the discourse on cultural imperialism see John Tomlinson, Cultural Imperialism: A Critical Introduction (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991).

113. "Música y Liberación (mesa redonda)," Cine Cubano 13, no. 76 (1973): 19-20.

114. "Declaración final del Encuentro de Música Latinoamericana," Casa de las Américas 13, no. 75 (1972). See also Leonardo Acosta, Música y descolonización (Havana: Editorial Arte y Literatura, 1982).

115. Luz Lozano, interview with the author, Mexico City, 2 March 1993. The song included an instrumental track by the Peruvian group Los Incas. Its commercial appropriation by Simon and Garfunkel created considerable

controversy in Peru, where the duo was widely denounced in the press for their imperialism. I am indebted to Iván Hinojosa and Elizabeth Howorth for our conversations on radical responses to rock music in Lima during this period.

116. "Soledad Bravo habla de la canción con mensaje social," Excélsior, 7 November 1974, B8. For an important discussion of the cultural politics behind the creation of the Polyforum, see Leonard Folgarait, So Far from Heaven: David Alfaro Siqueiros' The March of Humanity and Mexican Revolutionary Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987).

117. Federico Arana, interview with the author, Mexico City, 13 August 1991. Arana was a guitar player and band leader for several different rock 'n' roll, rock, and, later, folk-music groups dating from the late 1950s. In 1973 he was awarded the Xavier Villaurrutia Prize for his novel Las jiras (Mexico City: Joaquín Mortiz, 1973), which chronicles the travails of a Mexican rock group touring in the United States. The author of several books on rock music in Mexico, Arana teaches biology and methodology at the UNAM. See also his Roqueros y folcloroides (Mexico City: Joaquín Mortiz, 1988).

118. From the album cover of Los Folkloristas: Repertorio, 1967-1970. Vol. 3 (Discos Pueblo, 1970).

119. René Villanueva, Cantares de la memoria: 25 años de la historia del grupo Los Folkloristas, alma y tradición de la música popular mexicana (Mexico City: Planeta, 1994), 225 and passim.

120. Ibid., 156-57.

119. René Villanueva, Cantares de la memoria: 25 años de la historia del grupo Los Folkloristas, alma y tradición de la música popular mexicana (Mexico City: Planeta, 1994), 225 and passim.

120. Ibid., 156-57.

121. Lozano, interview.

122. Zatz-Díaz, interview.

123. Zatz-Díaz, interview.

124. Quoted in Arana, Roqueros y folcloroides, 26.

125. "Santana Concert Undermined by Leftists/Government," Rolling Stone, 6 January 1972, 4. During a tour of Central America in late 1973, the band encountered "crowds [that] were so huge in El Salvador that the group had to be escorted to their plane by the Red Cross" ( Rolling Stone, 22 November 1973, 33).

126. Oliart and Lloréns, "Nueva canción."

127. Simon Frith, " 'The Magic That Can Set You Free': The Ideology of Folk and the Myth of the Rock Community," Popular Music 1 (1981): 159-68.

128. New Song and folk music performances and discussions were widely sponsored by the UNAM, for instance. See the poster archive, "Difusión Cultural / UNAM," CESU. See also Lucía Martínez Villegas and Hilda Rivera Delgado, La Extensión Universitaria en la Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México: Información General, 1973-1978 (Mexico City: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 1979), vol. 6.

129. Lozano, interview.

130. Arana, Roqueros y folcloroides, 122.

131. Zatz-Díaz, interview.

132. Jaime Pontones, interview with the author, Mexico City, 15 August 1991.

133. Army Rivera and others, El público del canto popular (Santiago, Chile: CENECA, 1980), 14. See also Armand Mattelart and Michele Mattelart, Juventud chilena: Rebeldía y conformismo (Santiago, Chile: Editorial Universitaria, 1970).

134. Pérez Cruz, interview.

135. García, interview.