1. Besides Yunnan (Dec. 25, 1915) and Guizhou (Jan. 27, 1916), the other provinces declaring independence were Guangxi (Mar. 15), continue

Guangdong (Apr. 6), Zhejiang (Apr. 12), Shaanxi (May 9), Sichuan (May 22), and Hunan (May 29).

2. Sheridan, Chinese Warlord , 8.

3. See Nathan, 29-32, for a discussion of the characteristics of clientalism.

4. Zheng Tingxi, "Wo suo zhidao de Wang Zhanyuan" [The Wang Zhanyuan I knew], WZX, 51: 252-53; Zhao Shilan, "Junfa Wang Zhanyuan jingying gongshangye gaikuang" [The general situation of the warlord Wang Zhanyuan's operation of industrial and commercial enterprises], in Tianjin wenshi ziliao xuanji [Selected Tianjin cultural and historical materials], ed. Zhongguo renmin xieshang huiyi Tianjin shi weiyuanhui, wenshi ziliao yanjiu weiyuanhui [Cultural and historical materials research committee, Tianjin committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference], vol. 4 (Tianjin: Tianjin renmin chubanshe, 1979), 163; Cao Yabo, 2: 121-23; Zhang Guogan, "Beiyang junfa de qiyuan" [The origins of the Beiyang warlords], in Beiyang junfa shiliao xuanji [Selected historical materials on the Beiyang warlords], ed. Du Chunhe, Lin Binsheng, and Qiu Quanzheng (Beijing: Zhongguo shehui kexue chubanshe, 1981), 1: 45.

5. Tao Juyin, Beiyang junfa , 2: 119-20; Shibao , April 27, 1914, Aug. 23 and 24, 1915.

6. Shibao , Feb. 7, 1914, July 21 and Dec. 31, 1915.

7. Tao Juyin, Beiyang junfa , 2: 166-68; Shibao , Aug. 24, Sept. 17 and 19, Dec. 24, 1915, Jan. 10, 1916.

8. Young, Presidency , 222-27; Tao Juyin, Beiyang junfa , 2: 180-82, 216-19. As a compromise, Feng proposed that Yuan be allowed to finish his term of office before retiring. For a description of the issues debated at the Nanjing conference, see Huguojun jishi [Record of the National Protection Army] (Shanghai: Zhonghua xinbaoguan, 1916), 5: 86-100.

9. See Young, Presidency , 238.

10. Shibao , Jan. 10, Mar. 17, Apr. 9, and May 3, 1916.

11. Yang Wenkai, "Wo zai Wang Zhanyuan muxia de huodong pianduan" [A fragmentary account of my activities on Wang Zhanyuan's staff], WZX, 51: 90-93. Yang Wenkai was a graduate of Japan's Army Officers' Academy who joined Wang's staff in 1911. From 1916 to 1920, Yang headed the Hubei military governor's Office of Military Affairs.

12. Shibao , May 2, 1916.

13. Shibao , May 7, 1916.

14. Shibao , May 29, 1916.

15. Sutton, Provincial Militarism , 184-91.

16. Cao Kun was appointed commander-in-chief of both Sichuan and Hunan fronts, but established his headquarters on the more cru- soft

cial Sichuan front. The 6th Division commander, Ma Jizeng, was transferred from Jiangxi with his troops to take charge of the West Hunan front. Other forces joining the 6th Division in Hunan were the 7th Mixed Brigade from Henan, most of the Fengtian 20th Division, and fifteen battalions of Anhui's Anwu Army, as well as smaller portions of other northern units. Tao Juyin, Beiyang junfa , 2: 162; Shibao , Apr. 11, 1916.

17. The best study of Sun Yat-sen and his party in this period is Edward Friedman's Backward toward Revolution: The Chinese Revolutionary Party (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1974).

18. Yang Shiji, 228-29; "Guizhou shibai hou Xiangzhong gemingdang shi gailue" [An outline history of the revolutionary party in Hunan after the 1913 defeat], GMWX, 47: 478-79.

19. A number of revolutionaries accepted amnesties and returned from exile to show their support for the government. For example, Ji Yulin, the former Hubei 8th Division commander, who was involved in successive Hubei uprising attempts, accepted a pardon from Yuan in April 1915. Shibao , May 30, June 10 and 17, 1915.

20. Cai Jimin was a graduate of the Hubei Special Military Primary School and a platoon commander in the Hubei army during the 1911 Revolution. Cai had a long revolutionary history in Hubei, going back to the Society for the Daily Increase in Knowledge and membership in both the Literature and the Forward Together societies. In 1912 Cai served for a short time as head of the Hubei Department of Military Affairs. He Juefei, 1: 271-74.

21. Huguojun jishi , 2: 178-79; Shibao , Feb. 25 and 26, 1916.

22. Shibao , May 29, 1916.

23. Shibao , May 13, 24, and 28, 1916. The last of these accounts estimated that three to four thousand revolutionaries gathered in the Hankou concessions.

24. There were four such attacks, and one accidental bomb explosion, in Hankou in a ten-day period in mid May. None of the attacks were successful in killing their intended victims. Memorandum of the Hubei commissioner of foreign affairs, enclosed in USDS 893.00/2442 (Cunningham, May 19, 1916); Shibao , May 14, 16, 20, and 23, 1916.

25. HJDJ, 339-40; Huguojun jishi , 2: 180-82.

26. Shibao , May 23, 1916.

27. Shibao , Aug. 21, 1916.

28. Shibao , Apr. 30, 1916.

29. Yang Shiji, 233.

30. HJDJ, 342; Shibao , May 17 and 19, 1916.

31. Dai Jitao, 84.

32. Reports on various National Protection Movement uprisings continue

and people's armies in Hunan from the Changsha Dagongbao are reproduced in HLZ, 1960, no. 1: 128-45.

33. HLZ, 1960, no. 1: 131-32, 138; Dai Jitao, 84; Zhang Li'an, "Huguo zhi yi Qianjun zai donglu zuozhan jingguo" [The war experience of the Guizhou army on the eastern route during the National Protection War], in Guizhou wenshi ziliao xuanji [Collection of Guizhou cultural and historical materials], ed. Zhongguo renmin zhengzhi xieshang huiyi Guizhou sheng weiyuanhui, wenshi ziliao yanjiu weiyuanhui [Research committee on cultural and historical materials, Guizhou committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference], vol. 2 (Guiyang: Guizhou renmin chubanshe, 1981), 137-38.

34. Cheng Qian, "Huguo zhi yi qianhou huiyi" [Memoir of the period before and after the National Protection War], HWZ, 8: 1-9.

35. Ibid., 10-19.

36. Ibid., 16.

37. Ibid., 20. Shibao , June 8, 1916, notes Zhou Zefan's defection to Cheng, but gives a slightly different account of the organization of his forces. Neither source relates the specific background of Zhou's Guard Corps troops, but from their location they were clearly the 5th District forces that had originally been under the command of Tao Zhongxun, the West Hunan vice garrison commander. Later accounts note that Zhou had been Tao's subordinate. Shibao , Jan. 12, 1917; Guomin xinbao [Citizen's News], Nov. 3, 1917.

34. Cheng Qian, "Huguo zhi yi qianhou huiyi" [Memoir of the period before and after the National Protection War], HWZ, 8: 1-9.

35. Ibid., 10-19.

36. Ibid., 16.

37. Ibid., 20. Shibao , June 8, 1916, notes Zhou Zefan's defection to Cheng, but gives a slightly different account of the organization of his forces. Neither source relates the specific background of Zhou's Guard Corps troops, but from their location they were clearly the 5th District forces that had originally been under the command of Tao Zhongxun, the West Hunan vice garrison commander. Later accounts note that Zhou had been Tao's subordinate. Shibao , Jan. 12, 1917; Guomin xinbao [Citizen's News], Nov. 3, 1917.

34. Cheng Qian, "Huguo zhi yi qianhou huiyi" [Memoir of the period before and after the National Protection War], HWZ, 8: 1-9.

35. Ibid., 10-19.

36. Ibid., 16.

37. Ibid., 20. Shibao , June 8, 1916, notes Zhou Zefan's defection to Cheng, but gives a slightly different account of the organization of his forces. Neither source relates the specific background of Zhou's Guard Corps troops, but from their location they were clearly the 5th District forces that had originally been under the command of Tao Zhongxun, the West Hunan vice garrison commander. Later accounts note that Zhou had been Tao's subordinate. Shibao , Jan. 12, 1917; Guomin xinbao [Citizen's News], Nov. 3, 1917.

34. Cheng Qian, "Huguo zhi yi qianhou huiyi" [Memoir of the period before and after the National Protection War], HWZ, 8: 1-9.

35. Ibid., 10-19.

36. Ibid., 16.

37. Ibid., 20. Shibao , June 8, 1916, notes Zhou Zefan's defection to Cheng, but gives a slightly different account of the organization of his forces. Neither source relates the specific background of Zhou's Guard Corps troops, but from their location they were clearly the 5th District forces that had originally been under the command of Tao Zhongxun, the West Hunan vice garrison commander. Later accounts note that Zhou had been Tao's subordinate. Shibao , Jan. 12, 1917; Guomin xinbao [Citizen's News], Nov. 3, 1917.

38. Cheng Qian, "Huguo," 19-20; Dai Jitao, 84-85.

39. Cheng Qian, "Huguo," 19, 26-27.

40. Ibid., 26.

39. Cheng Qian, "Huguo," 19, 26-27.

40. Ibid., 26.

41. He Juefei, 2: 607; Cheng Qian, "Huguo," 30-31.

42. Huguojun jishi , 5: 61; Yang Shiji, 235. The details of the agreement between Tang Xiangming, Tan Yankai, and Tan Zhen were revealed in a handbill published in June 1916 in Hunan by Tan Zhen. This handbill (identifying Tan Zhen as T'ang Chen) is enclosed in translation in USDS 893.00/2491 (Johnson, June 27, 1916).

43. Huguojun jishi , 2: 61; USDS 893.00/2431 (Johnson, Apr. 19, May 4 and 9, 1916), 893.00/2441 (Johnson, May 19, 1916); Dazhongbao , May 15, 1916, enclosed in USDS 893.00/2441; Shibao , Apr. 19 and May 24, 1916.

44. Huguojun jishi , 2: 61; USDS 893.00/2431 (Johnson, May 4, 1916); Dazhongbao , May 16, 1916, enclosed in USDS 893.00/2441; Shibao , May 10, 1916. Guo Renzhang was the ambitious son of a wealthy Hunan gentry family. His father served as a general under Zeng Guofan. During the 1911 Revolution, Guo used his position as a local military commander in Guangdong to assume the title of military governor. He was elected to the National Assembly in 1913 as a mem- soft

ber of the Nationalist Party, but supported Yuan in the Second Revolution. After this conflict, Yuan temporarily appointed Guo Hunan "inspector" before replacing him with Tang Xiangming. HJDJ, 342; Zixuzi, 74; Shibao , Apr. 7 and Sept. 18, 1913; "Guanyu Tang Xiangming," 43.

45. Da Zhonghua zazhi [Great China Magazine], 2, no. 5 (May 20, 1916): 6; Huguojun jishi , 2: 61-66; Shibao , June 4, 1916.

46. HJDJ, 342; Li Qi and Liu Zanting, "Women suo zhidao de Liu Zhong" [The Liu Zhong we knew], HWZ, 8: 165-66.

47. Huguojun jishi , 2: 62-63; USDS 893.00/2441 (Johnson, May 16, 1916); Shibao , May 24, 1916.

48. Cheng Qian, "Huguo," 28-31.

49. Da Zhonghua zazhi , 2, no. 7 (July 20, 1916): 6; Wen Gongzhi, 2: 317. Tian's final decision was influenced by Xiong Xiling, a prominent West Hunan politician who had served at one point as Yuan's premier. Yuan appointed Xiong as West Hunan "pacification commissioner" to negotiate an end to Guizhou's invasion. Disillusioned by Yuan's attempt to make himself emperor, Xiong instead encouraged Tian to declare independence. Dai Jitao, 84-85.

50. Huguojun jishi , 2: 67-68.

51. Ibid., 2: 72-73; Shibao , June 15, 17, and 18, 1916; USDS 893.00/2499 (Winterralter, July 15, 1916).

50. Huguojun jishi , 2: 67-68.

51. Ibid., 2: 72-73; Shibao , June 15, 17, and 18, 1916; USDS 893.00/2499 (Winterralter, July 15, 1916).

52. Zhao Hengti, section 4; Zhong Boyi, section 8; Cheng Qian, "Huguo," 30.

53. According to most accounts, Zeng's army was organized into four tituan (echelons) under the commands of Chen Fuchu, Zhao Hengti, Liu Jianfan, and Chen Jiayou. Huguojun jishi , 2: 71; Shibao , June 11, 1916; HJDJ, 347. While other accounts differ somewhat on this organization, all sources agree that they were given few troops.

54. T'ang Chen [Tan Zhen] handbill, enclosed in USDS 893.00/2491 (Johnson, June 27, 1916).

55. Shibao , July 3, 1916.

56. Huguojun jishi , 2: 71-73. In one widely publicized case, Li Youwen suppressed a number of revolutionary-led people's armies that had gathered in Yuezhou in mid May demanding official recognition. For this and other cases, see USDS 893.00/2491 (Beck, June 17, 1916); Shibao , June 28 and 29, 1916. It is worth noting that Tang was not alone in his distrust of the people's armies. Tian Yingzhao, Zhou Zefan, and even Cheng Qian were involved in the suppression of unruly people's armies.

57. Shibao , June 19, 1916; Da Zhonghua zazhi , 2, no. 7 (July 20, 1916): 12.

58. USDS 893.00/2431 (Johnson, May 4, 1916).

59. Shibao , June 27, 1916; USDS 893.00/2491 (Johnson, June 27, continue

1916) and T'ang Chen [Tan Zhen] enclosure in the same; Huguojun jishi , 2: 71.

60. USDS 893.00/2491 (Johnson, June 27, 1916).

61. Ibid., and T'ang Chen [Tan Zhen] enclosure in the same; USDS 893.00/2491 (Johnson, June 22, 1916); Shibao , June 14 and 18, 1916.

60. USDS 893.00/2491 (Johnson, June 27, 1916).

61. Ibid., and T'ang Chen [Tan Zhen] enclosure in the same; USDS 893.00/2491 (Johnson, June 22, 1916); Shibao , June 14 and 18, 1916.

62. Cheng Qian, "Huguo," 31-37.

63. Ibid., 36-37; Dagongbao , July 6, 1916, in HLZ, 1960, no. 1: 146; Shibao , July 15, 1916.

62. Cheng Qian, "Huguo," 31-37.

63. Ibid., 36-37; Dagongbao , July 6, 1916, in HLZ, 1960, no. 1: 146; Shibao , July 15, 1916.

64. Cheng Qian, "Huguo," 37; Shibao , July 16, 1916.

65. USDS 893.00/2491 (Johnson, July 6, 1916), 893.00/2534 (Johnson, July 10, 1916). One contender for the military governor's post was Guo Renzhang, who still had a military base in the remnants of his mine guards. Another contender was Tang Mang, a revolutionary activist and son of the late Qing reformer and revolutionary Tang Caichang, who had gathered unorganized troops into a constabulary force. Shibao , July 12 and 13, 1916; Zhong Boyi, section 8; Da Zhonghua zazhi , 2, no. 8 (Aug. 1916): 7.

66. Shibao , July 12 and 15, 1916; Da Zhonghua zazhi , 2, no. 8 (Aug. 1916): 7; Zhong Boyi, section 8; Zixuzi, 97.

67. "Guanyu Tang Xiangming," 49; Zhang Pingzi, 75.

68. Zhong Boyi, section 8; Zhao Hengti, section 4; Da Zhonghua zazhi , 2, no. 8 (Aug. 1916): 7.

69. Shibao , July 15, 17, and 28, Aug. 1, 1916; Da Zhonghua zazhi , 2, no. 9 (Sept. 1916): 2-3.

70. Huang Xing recommended Tan's return, ensuring revolutionary support. Important Progressive Party leaders such as Xiong Xiling also gave Tan their support when it became clear that Cai would not accept the post. Both Liu Renxi and Lu Rongting also sent representatives to Shanghai to urge Tan's return. Tao Juyin, "Ji Tan Yankai," 95; Zhong Boyi, section 8. Tan's central appointment was issued on August 3, 1916. Shibao , Aug. 5, 1916.

71. Shibao , Sept. 1, 1916; USDS 893.00/2534 (Johnson, Aug. 29, 1916).

72. Shibao , July 14, 21, and 24, 1916; USDS 893.00/2733 (Johnson, Oct. 6, 1917).

73. Shibao , July 24, Aug. 5 and 27, 1916; USDS 893.00/2534 (Johnson, July 21, 1916).

74. See reports on the Assembly's activities after the opening of its second session in Dagongbao , Mar.-May 1917.

75. Shibao , July 9 and 10, 1916.

76. Shibao , July 12, 13, 14, 16, 21, and 26, 1916.

77. Shibao , July 18 and 27, Aug. 5, 1916. Reflecting this semantic continue

difference, central communications addressed Tan as civil governor, whereas he insisted on being addressed as military governor within Hunan. Tao Juyin, Beiyang junfa , 3: 31-32.

78. Da Zhonghua zazhi , 2, no. 9 (Sept. 1916): 1; USDS 893.00/2534 (Johnson, Aug. 1 and 9, 1916). In early May, Tang Xiangming sent Li Youwen to take control of Yuezhou from northern troops. At the end of the month, Li was recalled to protect Tang at Changsha, leaving the city open to northern reoccupation. Shibao , June 11, 1916; USDS 893.00/2491 (Johnson, June 19, 1916; Beck, June 24, 1916). Wu Guangxin was a Jiangsu graduate of Japan's Army Officers' Academy. He rose through the Beiyang Army to the rank of division commander before resigning in opposition to Yuan's monarchical attempt. Guomin xinbao , Oct. 5, 1917.

79. Shibao , July 21 and 24, 1916.

80. USDS 893.00/2534 (Johnson, Aug. 1, 1916); Tao Juyin, "Ji Tan Yankai," 95; Shibao , Aug. 11, Sept. 25, and Oct. 25, 1916; Dagongbao , Jan. 9, 1917.

81. Tao Juyin, Beiyang junfa , 3: 21-22; Hunan gongbao , Aug. 16, 1916.

82. Shibao , Aug. 26 and Sept. 29, 1916.

83. USDS 893.00/2534 (Johnson, Aug. 9, 1916).

84. Tao Juyin, "Ji Tan Yankai," 95-96; Shibao , Aug. 23 and 26, 1916.

85. Shibao , Aug. 21 and Sept. 17, 1916; USDS 893.00/2534 (Johnson, Aug. 9, 1916).

86. Shibao , Sept. 29, 1916.

87. Shibao , July 24, 1916; Tao Juyin, "Ji Tan Yankai," 96.

88. Shibao , Aug. 26, 1916.

89. Shibao , Dec. 22, 1916; Dagongbao , Feb. 15, 19, and 28, Mar. 19, 1917.

90. Dagongbao , Feb. 28, 1917.

91. As chief of staff of Hunan's 4th Division in 1912, Chen Fuchu had assisted in Tan's troop disbandment. His previous Guard Corps command had been a reward for this service. Tong Meicen, "Canzan," 79.

92. Zhao Hengti, section 4.

93. HJDJ, 346-47; Hu Nai'an, Xin Xiangjun zhi [Record of the new Hunan army] (Taibei: Zhizhuan shuwo, 1969), 93; Tao Juyin, "Ji Tan Yankai," 99. Chen Binghuan (Shufan) was a gongsheng degree-holder and vice president of the late Qing Hunan Provincial Assembly. He participated in the assassination conspiracy against Jiao Dafeng in 1911 that put Tan into the military governorship. HJDJ, 304; Esherick, 208-9, 240. break

94. Dagongbao , Jan. 7 and 9, 1917.

95. USDS 893.00/2534 (Cunningham, July 27, 1916); Shibao , July 5, 9, 13, and 31, 1916.

96. Hankow Daily News , July 31, 1916, and Central China Post , July 31, Aug. 1 and 4, 1916, enclosed in USDS 893.00/2534.

97. Liu Cuochen, 1.

98. Shibao , Dec. 17, 1914, Aug. 2, 1915.

99. Shibao , June 14 and Aug. 17, 1915, Feb. 6 and 23, 1916.

100. Liu Cuochen, 1-2.

101. Shibao , July 5, 1916.

102. Liu Cuochen, 2.

103. Central China Post , Aug. 1, 1916, enclosed in USDS 893.00/2534.

104. Liu Cuochen, 3.

105. Shibao , Jan. 10, 1916.

106. Hubei gongbao , Jan. 13, 1914; Shibao , Aug. 12, 1914.

107. Wang Maoshang had previously been commander of the 2d Division's 4th Brigade. Zhiyuanlu , 1915, no. 1: lujun guanzuo 7; 1916, no. 1: lujun guanzuo 31.

108. Both Wang Jinjing and Wang Maoshang served as regiment commanders under Wang Zhanyuan in 1908 when he was still a 2d Division brigade commander. MacKinnon, "Peiyang Army," 416. Wang Jinjing, like Wang Zhanyuan, was a Shandong native, and the two men had a close friendship, going back to the days when they had trained together under Yuan Shikai. Although a rather mediocre officer, Wang Jinjing's strong loyalty assured him of Wang Zhan-yuan's patronage. Zheng Tingxi, 255.

109. A number of forces withdrawn from Sichuan and Hunan after the Anti-Monarchical War were garrisoned in Hubei, but most were eventually disbanded, transferred elsewhere, or placed under the control of other commanders. For example, Wang gained temporary control over Wu Xiangzhen's 4th Mixed Brigade and Li Bingzhi's 13th Mixed Brigade after their withdrawal from Sichuan. Later, though, Wu's brigade was disbanded and the 13th Mixed Brigade was placed under Wu Guangxin's command. Only a Henan army mixed regiment commanded by Kou Yingjie remained more or less permanently under Hubei control after its withdrawal from Hunan. Guomin xinbao , Apr. 7, 1917; Shibao , Nov. 5, 1916, June 7, 1917.

110. Shibao , Jan. 22, 1916.

111. Shibao , Jan. 9, 1916.

112. Shibao , May 6, 18, and 23, 1916.

113. Shibao , May 23, Aug. 29, Sept. 6, and Nov. 5, 1916; Guomin xinbao , May 18, 1917.

114. Liu Cuochen, 2. break

115. Shibao , July 23, 1916. The deceased civil governor, Fan Shouyou, had only been appointed to his post by Yuan Shikai in early May 1916, and made little impact on Hubei administration. Nonetheless, the appointment of Fan, one of Yuan's loyal supporters, indicated Yuan's determination even at that late date to maintain his influence over provincial administration. Shibao , May 9, 1916.

116. Shibao , July 25, 1916. A request for Wang's succession as civil governor originated with the Hubei Chamber of Commerce, but it was reportedly "pressured" by the provincial bureaucracy, which feared the appointment of a new civil governor. Shibao , July 27, 1916.

117. Shibao , Sept. 8, 1916.

118. Shibao , Aug. 20 and 31, Sept. 8, 1916.

119. In September 1916, Wang led the Hubei bureaucracy in opposing a nominee reportedly accepted by the National Assembly, Li Yuanhong, and Duan Qirui, and warned that he would only hand the seal of office over to his own candidate. Shibao , Sept. 8, 1916.

120. Zheng Tingxi, 254-55. Among the posts Wang allowed the central government to fill were the directorships of the Education and Industry Departments, offices whose low budgets rendered them effectively powerless.

121. For example, in October 1916, Wang's chief of staff, He Peirong, was appointed to a concurrent post as head of the Department of Government Affairs. Shibao , Oct. 12, 1916.

122. Shibao , July 31, Aug. 11, 18, and 19, Oct. 1 and 22, 1916.

123. These disputes are recorded in Shibao , Oct. 1916-Sept. 1917.

124. Zheng Tingxi, 253.

125. Liu Cuochen, 3.