1. Iliya Harik, Politics and Change in a Traditional Society: Lebanon, 1711-1845 (Princeton, 1968), 16-17, and Kamal Salibi, A House of Many Mansions: The History of Lebanon Reconsidered (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1988), 64-65.

2. Harvey H. Smith et al., Area Handbook for Lebanon , 2nd ed. (Washington, D.C., 1974), 9-17; Dominique Chevallier, La société du Mont Liban à l'époque de la révolution industrielle en Europe (Paris, 1971), 3-4, 30-31, and plates 1-4; Leon Marfoe, "The Integrative Transformation: Patterns of Sociopolitical Organization in Southern Syria," Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 234(1979): 21-23; and William R. Polk, The Opening of South Lebanon, 1788-1840 (Cambridge, Mass., 1963), 1-9. Also see As'ad AbuKhalil, "The Society and the Environment," in Lebanon: A Country Study , ed. Thomas Collelo (Washington, D.C., 1989), 42-48, and P. Beaumont, G. H. Blake, and J. M. Wagstaff, The Middle East: A Geographical Study , 2nd ed. (New York, 1988), 387-389.

3. The term "Syria" here and throughout the text means geographical Syria, which now covers the sovereign states of Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, and parts of southeastern Turkey. During the Ottoman and Mamluk periods, the northern parts of this geographical region centered on the city of Aleppo and the southern parts on Damascus. See Antoine Abdel Nour, Introduction à l'histoire urbaine de la Syrie Ottomane (XVIe-XVIIIe siècle) (Beirut, 1982); on the rivalry of ports, 77, 305-313, 334-341, 352-365. For a description of the two subregions of "Syria," see Engin Akarli, "Spatial Organization in 14th-Century Syria," Bogaziçi University Journal--Humanities 6(1978): 1-25.

4. Salibi, House , 65-68.

5. Abdel Nour, 340-365; Leila T. Fawaz, Merchants and Migrants in 19th-Century Beirut (Cambridge, Mass., 1983), 8-13, 30-31, 127, and "Zahla and Dayr al-Qamar," in Lebanon: A History of Conflict and Consensus , ed. Shehadi and Mills 49-63; and Paul Saba, "The Creation of the Lebanese Economy," in Essays on the Crisis in Lebanon , ed. Roger Owen (London, 1976), 1-5.

6. Chevallier, La société du Mont Liban , 66-79, 150-156; Polk, 69-71, 175-189; and Marfoe, 20-29.

7. Salibi cautions us against uncritical interpretations of this situation, as if "Lebanon" was an island of freedom in a land of oppression; House , 130-150, esp. 148f.

8. On the Maronites, see Salibi, House , 13, 72-92, 113-114; Chevallier, La société , 16-17, 245-256; Harik, Politics and Change , 18-23, 74-166. Compare Matti Moosa, The Maronites in History (Syracuse, N. Y., 1986). For population percentages given here and below, see Table 1 in Chapter 4 of this work. For estimates of earlier periods, see Chevallier, La société , 49-63.

9. On Shiism in general, see Hodgson, The Venture of Islam , vol. 2: 36-39, 445-455, and vol. 3: 33-38. The mutawâlîs adhered to the twelve-imam branch, or main line, of Shiism. One cannot assume, however, that all Shiites were "twelvers" throughout the past. For Lebanese Shiites, see Isma'il Haqqi, ed., Lubnân: mabâhith 'ilmiyya wa ijtimâ'iyya , 2nd ed. (Beirut, 1969-70), 666-677; Albert Hourani, Syria and Lebanon: A Political Essay (London, 1946), 122-123, and "From Jabal 'Amil to Persia," Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 49(1986): 133-140; Salibi, House , 137, 144-145; Beaumont, Blake, and Wagstaff, 389-392; and Helena Cobban, The Making of Modern Lebanon (Boulder, Co., 1985), 19-21.

10. On the Druze in general, see Nejla Abu-Izzeddin, The Druzes: A New Study of Their History, Faith, and Society (Leiden, 1984); Robert Betts, The Druze (New Haven, 1988); Kamal Salibi, The Modern History of Lebanon (New York, 1965), xviii-xxii; Isma'il Haqqi, 677-680; and Kamal Joumblatt, I Speak for Lebanon (London, 1982), esp. 26-39. Also see David Bryer, "The Origins of the Druze Religion," Der Islam 52(1975): 47-84, 239-262, and 53(1976): 5-27.

11. Abdul-Rahim Abu-Husayn, Provincial Leaderships in Syria, 1575-1650 (Beirut, 1985), esp. 67-128; Isma'il Haqqi, 325-340; Halil Inalcik, "Tax Collection, Embezzlement, and Bribery in Ottoman Finances," Bulletin of the Turkish Studies Association 15(1991): 327-346; and Abu-Izzeddin, 179-191. Also see T. Gökbilgin's and S. Tekindag's separate contributions under "Durûz" in Encyclopaedia of Islam , new ed. ("Dürziler" in Islâm[Idot;slâm] Ansiklopedisi ); and Salibi, House , 123-128.

12. On the precariousness of Fakhr al-Din's alliances, see Abu-Husayn, 92-93; on the Ma'ns' position in central cantons, see Salibi, Modern History , 5. An oft-quoted witness of peaceful sectarian relations is Constantin-François Volney, Travels through Syria and Egypt in the Years 1783, 1784, and 1785 , 2nd ed. (London, 1788); see, e.g., vol. 1:299-300, and vol. 2:74-81. But compare note 7 above.

13. Timothy Ware, The Orthodox Church (London, 1964), 102-110; Robert M. Haddad, "On Melkite Passage to the Unia (1672-1720)," and Thomas Philipp, "Image and Self-Image of the Syrians in Egypt," both in Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Empire , ed. Benjamin Braude and Bernard Lewis (New York and London, 1982), vol. 2:67-90 and 167-184, respectively; Albert Hourani, The Emergence of the Modern Middle East (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1981), 103-123, esp. 103-108; Salibi, House ,

43, 137-138; and Roderic Davison, Reform in the Ottoman Empire, 1856-1876 (Princeton, 1963), 119, note 17.

14. Abdel Nour, 308, 310, 350-351, and Robert Haddad, "On Melkite Passage," 67-90.

15. Fawaz, Merchants , 50-51.

16. Hourani, Emergence , 1-18 (cf. 43-44).

17. On the Greek Orthodox Church in the Ottoman Empire, see Halil Inalcik, "The Status of the Greek Orthodox Patriarch under the Ottomans," Turcica 21-23 (1991): 407-436; Timothy Ware, The Orthodox Church , 96-112, and Eustratios Argenti: A Study of the Greek Church under Turkish Rule (Oxford, 1964); and Kemal H. Karpat, An Inquiry into the Social Foundations of Nationalism in the Ottoman State (Princeton, 1973). Also see Karpat, "Millets and Nationality," and Richard Clogg, "The Greek Millet in the Ottoman Empire," in Braude and Lewis, vol. 1: 141-170 and 185-208, respectively. Compare Robert Haddad, Syrian Christians in Muslim Society (Princeton, 1970). On the Greek Orthodox migration to the Mountain, see Salibi, House , 138. On the East-West 'dichotomy' in the context of Lebanese history, see Chapter 8 in this work and compare Sandra Mackey, Lebanon: The Death of a Nation (New York and Chicago, 1989).

18. Chevallier, La société , 58, and Polk, Opening , 126. Also see Ahmed Cevdet Pasa, Târîh-i Cevdet (Istanbul, 1288-1303 [1871-1886]), vol. 3:14-20, 35-37.

19. From the vantage point of the elitist-urban Ottoman-Arab culture, the titles assumed by the Mountain's notables would appear pretentious. Besides, they appear to have acquired this importance in retrospect, partly under the influence of the works of nineteenth-century local historians. For Salibi's criticism of these works, under the heading "The Imagined Principality," see House , 108-129. The challenge is to understand the mountaineers' self-perception without losing sight of the broader environment in which they lived.

The following account of the political events and relationships under the amirate is based on: Abu-Izzeddin, 189-215; Polk, 10-82; Salibi, Modern History , 3-17; Harik, Politics and Change , 32-73; Chevallier, La société , 80-89; Isma'il Haqqi, 161-165, 340-350; and other works mentioned below. For a general framework, see Hourani, Emergence , 124-148, and his Political Society in Lebanon (London, [1985]).

20. Abu-Izzeddin, 202, and Abu-Husayn, 126-127.

21. For an evaluation of the power-magnate networks that prevailed in the area in general during this period, see Engin Akarli, "Provincial Power Magnates in Ottoman Bilad al-Sham and Egypt, 1740-1840," in La vie sociale dans les provinces Arabes à l'époque Ottomane , ed. Abdeljelil Temimi (Zaghouan, Tunisia, 1988), vol. 3:41-56. The position of the muqâta'ajis and the muqâta'a system as it applied in Mount Lebanon are

hotly debated issues. For a review of major positions and works, see Alexander Schölch, "Was There A Feudal System in Ottoman Lebanon and Palestine?" in Palestine in the Late Ottoman Period , ed. David Kushner (Jerusalem and Leiden, 1986), 130-145; for major works, see 144, note 22.

22. See Marfoe, 27-29, and Polk, 50-71, esp. 71.

23. E.g., compare the table of major families in Chevallier, La société , 63. We see the formation of similar relationships even in villages founded at later dates; see, e.g., on a Greek Orthodox village, Afif I. Tannous, "Social Change in an Arab Village," in Readings in Arab Middle Eastern Societies and Cultures , ed. A. M. Lutfiyya, and C. W. Churchill (The Hague, 1970), 288-289.

24. Polk, 130-131, and Abu-Izzeddin, 206-207.

25. Abu-Izzeddin, 209-210.

26. Harik, Politics and Change , 81-85.

27. See, e.g., Chevallier, La société , 63, 88; Harik, Politics and Change , 42, 211-212; and Touma, 751-753.

28. Harik, Politics and Change , 65-71, and Chevallier, La société , 146-148. Compare maps of the amirate published by different authors: Salibi, Modern History , 218-219; Abu-Husayn, 108; Polk, 54; Chevallier, La société , plates 6-7; and Axel Havemann, Rurale Bewegungen im Libanongebirge des 19. Jahrhunderts (Berlin, 1983), 406.

29. On succession problems, sources of legitimate authority, and dyadic relationships, see Harik, Politics and Change , 38, 54-61. A family could shift sides, and factions within a family might support different camps. Compare this with similar relationships in nearby Nablus in northern Palestine: Miriam Hoexter, "The Role of the Qays and Yaman Factions in Local Political Divisions," Asian and African Studies 9(1973): 249-311.

30. Harik, Politics and Change , 41, 168-169, 198, 279, passim.

31. For a general assessment, see Saba, 1-4; compare the works mentioned in note 32 below. In most works on eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century "Syria," the emphasis is on trade with Europe. There can be little doubt, however, that Syria's trade with other parts of the Ottoman Empire, including Egypt, was more important until the 1840s. See Roger Owen, The Middle East in the World Economy, 1800-1914 (London, 1981), 52-53.

32. Dominique Chevallier, "Les cadres sociaux de l'économie agraire dans le Proche-Orient au début du xixe siècle: le cas du Mont Liban," in Studies in the Economic History of the Middle East , ed. M. A. Cook (London, 1970), 333-334; and I. M. Smilianskaya, "The Disintegration of Feudal Relations in Syria and Lebanon in the Middle of the 19th Century," in The Economic History of the Middle East, 1800-1914 , ed. Charles Issawi (Chicago, 1966), 228, note 3.

33. On Akka's rise, see Abdel Nour, 77, 351, 363-365. On the rivalry between the ports of "Syria," see Akarli, "Provincial Power Magnates." For Zahir al-'Umar in general, see Abdul-Karim Rafeq, The Province of Damascus, 1723-1783 (Beirut, 1966), and al-'Arab wal-'uthmâniyûn, 1516-1916 (Damascus, 1974), 231-313, passim; and Amnon Cohen, Palestine in the 18th Century (Jerusalem, 1973), passim.

34. On Cezzar, see Rafeq, al-'Arab , 310-318, 385ff.; Cohen, passim; Linda S. Schilcher, Families in Politics (Wiesbaden, 1985), 36-40; Abdul L. Tibawi, A Modern History of Syria (Edinburgh, 1969), 19-39, and Cevdet Pasa, Târîh , vol. 3:46-61 and vol. 7:94f., 117f., 353f.

35. Chevallier, "Les cadres," 333-334; and Caesar E. Farah, "The Problem of the Ottoman Administration in Lebanon, 1840-1861" (Ph.D. diss., Princeton University, 1958), 21-44.

36. Chevallier, La société , 98-99; Harik, Politics and Change , 41-42; Polk, 19, and Isma'il Haqqi, 348-349.

37. On Bashir Shihab and his relations with Bashir Junblat, see Polk, 14-31; Harik, Politics and Change , 167-199; Chevallier, La société , 90-105; Salibi, Modern History , 18-39; Abu-Izzeddin, 211-215; and Farah, "Problem," 20-30.

38. Harik, Politics and Change , 222-223; and Isma'il Haqqi, 346-347.

39. On the peasant resistance in 1820-21 and the role of the clergy in it, see Harik, Politics and Change , 200-222, and Havemann, 95-123.

40. Abu-Izzeddin, 214-215; Harik, Politics and Change , 222-228; Polk, 21-31; and Chevallier, La société , 102-104. On the struggle between the coastal and inland magnates, see Akarli, "Provincial Power Magnates."

41. Pasha is a title that replaced beylerbeyi or amîr ul-umarâ , i.e., the military governor of a province. Fakhr al-Din appears to have acquired the latter status by 1627 (Abu-Husayn, 110). In any case, by virtue of controlling the entire coast from Gaza to Tripoli, he would have been ranked next only to the governors of Aleppo and Damascus in the Ottoman military-administrative hierarchy. (Pasha eventually became a title given also to senior civilian bureaucrats, whether ministers or governors.)

42. For the cooperation between the Church and the amir, see Harik, Politics and Change , 127-139, 205-206, 229-245.

43. See Ahmed Lutfi, Târîh-i Lutfî (Istanbul, 1300 [1884-85]), vol. 4:31, 37-40; Afaf L. Marsot, Egypt in the Reign of Muhammad Ali (Cambridge, Eng., 1984), 196ff.; Polk, 26; and Asad Rustum, Bashîr bain al-sultân wal-'azîz, 1804-1841 (Beirut, 1966), 45-96, 185-224. On Mehmed Ali's economic concerns and Egypt's intensive trade relations with "Syria," see Farah, "Problem," 25-30.

44. Akarli, "Provincial Power Magnates," 50-56; Lûtfi, vol. 4:42-47; Polk, 95-105, 195-196. Compare Sinasi Altindag, "Kavalali Mehmet Ali

Pasa'nin Suriye'de Tatbik Ettigi Idare Tarzi," Belleten 8(1944): 231-244. On the trade conventions, see Mübahat Kütükoglu, Osmanli-Ingiliz Iktisâdî Münâsebetleri , vol. 1, 1580-1838 (Ankara, 1974), 81-125; and Frank E. Bailey, British Policy and the Turkish Reform Movement (Cambridge, Mass., 1942), 121-128, 147-170. On Beirut's rapid rise, see Fawaz, Merchants; and Michael Johnson, Class and Client in Beirut (London, 1986), 11-44.

45. Polk, 97-104, 136-137, 190-191.

46. Caesar Farah, "The Lebanese Insurgence of 1840 and the Powers," Journal of Asian History 1(1967): 105-132; Salibi, Modern History , 38-44; and Rustum, Bashîr , 169-184.

47. Harik, Politics and Change , 152-159, 213-214, 238-239, 250-257; and Richard van Leeuwen, "Monastic Estates and Agricultural Transformation in Mount Lebanon in the 18th Century," IJMES 23(1991): 601-617.

48. Harik, Politics and Change , 127-152, 254-266, 290-293.

49. Polk, 217-219.

50. Here I read the evidence available to me (esp. Chevallier, La société , 131-149, and Polk, passim) with an Ottomanist's eye. The relevant literature in this context is the debate on the çiftlik/mazra'a and Mâlikâne-muqâta'a (see Akarli, "Provincial Power Magnates," 42, note 4, and 49, note 15). Many historians make generalizations about Lebanon in the sixteenth through eighteenth centuries on the basis of data from the mid-nineteenth and twentieth centuries, when land had become a commodity or near-commodity. Such retrospective constructions need to be done in comparison with the better-documented neighboring areas. Van Leeuwen's article on the Maronite awqâf in the eighteenth century abounds with indications that Mount Lebanon was less different from its surrounding area than we normally assume. On the concept of multiple ownerships, see Engin Akarli, " Gedik ," in Wissenschaftskolleg Jahrbuch 1985/86 (Berlin, 1987), 223-232. On the effects of commercialization, see Saba, "The Creation of the Lebanese Economy."

51. Saba, 1-13; Salibi, Modern History , 47; Chevallier, La société , 166-167, 177-179 (cf. 157-165); Polk, 217-219; M. T. Gökbilgin, "1840'dan 1861'e kadar Cebel-i Lübnan Meselesi ve Dürziler," Belleten 10(1946): 641-650; and Farah, "Problem," 110-130.

52. Gökbilgin, "1840'dan 1861'e," 650-675; Farah, "Problem," 130-200; Baron I. de Testa, ed., Recueil des traités de la porte Ottomane avec les puissances étrangères (Paris, 1864-1911), vol. 3:86-179. Compare Salibi, Modern History , 53-71.

53. On the Sekib Efendi regulations, see GG 1013:9-23; Lutfi, vol. 8:64ff., 407ff.; Muhammad A. Tarhini, al-Usas al-târîkhiyya li-nizâm Lubnân al-tâifî (Beirut, 1981), which compares these regulations to the mutasarrifiyya regulations; and de Testa, vol. 3:179-225, esp. 200-207.

54. On these events, see Gökbilgin, "1840'dan 1861'e," 675-682, and Farah, "Problem," 200-207 and passim, who make use of Ottoman sources. Also see Salibi, Modern History , 70-79, and Harik, Politics and Change , 272-277. Compare Charles H. Churchill, The Druzes and the Maronites under the Turkish Rule from 1840 to 1860 (reprint of 1862 ed., New York, 1973); and Antoine J. Abraham, Lebanon at Mid-Century: Maronite-Druze Relations in Lebanon, 1840-1860 (Washington, D.C., 1981), 81-116.

55. Chevallier, La société , 178-179.

56. Dominique Chevallier, "Aux origines des troubles agraires Libanais en 1858," Annales 14(1959): 44-51; Yehoshua Porath, "The Peasant Revolt of 1858-1861 in Kisrawan," Asian and African Studies 2(1966): 77-157; Marwan Buheiry, "The Peasant Revolt of 1858 in Mount Lebanon," in Land Tenure and Social Transformation in the Middle East , ed. Tarif Khalidi (Beirut, 1984), 291-302; Malcolm H. Kerr, ed., Lebanon in the Last Years of Feudalism, 1840-1868 (Beirut, 1959), 19-26, 95-150; Salibi, Modern History , 80-87; and Havemann, 189-261.

57. Salibi, Modern History , 88-98; Farah, "Problem," 231, 236-237.

58. For various assessments see, e.g., Edouard Engelhardt, La Turquie et le Tanzimat ou histoire des réformes dans l'Empire Ottoman depuis 1826 jusqu'à nos jours (Paris, 1882-84), vol. 1:141ff.; Kamal Salibi, "The 1860 Upheaval in Damascus," in The Beginnings of Modernization in the Middle East , ed. W. Polk and R. Chambers (Chicago, 1968), 185-202; Farah, "Problem," 235-289; and Salibi, Modern History , 88-105.

59. A. Haluk "Uuml;lman, 1860-1861 Suriye Buhrani (Ankara, 1966), 33-36; Farah, "Problem," 235-289; Salibi, Modern History , 88-105.

60. Ülman, Suriye Buhrani , 39-81; Farah, "Problem," 291-346; Gökbilgin, "1840'dan 1861'e," 689-693. On the imperial decree concerning Fuad's mission, see MMD no. 10, pp. 23-24.

61. Farah, "Problem," 349-397; Ülman, Suriye Buhrani , 97-121; and John P. Spagnolo, France and Ottoman Lebanon , 29-52. For a summary of the minutes of the meetings, see de Testa, 105-406. On changes in administrative divisions in the area, see 'Abd al-'Aziz 'Awad, al-Idârat al-'uthmâniyya fi wilâya Sûriyya, 1864-1914 (Cairo, 1969), 61-81.

62. In addition to the grand vizier's immediate staff, the Sublime Porte housed the state archives, a number of advisory bodies which eventually formed the State Council, and the headquarters of the Interior and Foreign ministries. The Cabinet met at the Porte, unless the sultan ordered a meeting at his palace. In theory, supreme authority belonged to the sultan. He appointed the grand vizier and other senior officials, and his approval (decree) was necessary for the enactment of laws and the implementation of major policy decisions. Under a powerful sultan, the Palace could overshadow the Porte in policy-making. This was the case during most of Abdulhamid II's reign (1876-1909). Even then, however, the Porte

continued to function as the headquarters of the Ottoman government. On the development of the Porte and its relations with the Palace, see Carter V. Findley, Bureaucratic Reform in the Ottoman Empire: The Sublime Porte, 1789-1922 (Princeton, 1980), and Ottoman Civil Officialdom: A Social History (Princeton, 1989); Enver Z. Karal, Osmanli Tarihi , vols. 5-8 (Ankara, 1954-1962), passim; Davison, Reform , 16, 32-36, and passim; and Engin Akarli, "Friction and Discord within the Ottoman Government under Abdulhamid II," Bogaziçi University Journal--Humanities 7(1979): 3-26.

63. For the texts of the Règlement and the protocols, see Gabriel Noradounghian, ed., Recueil d'actes internationaux de l'Empire Ottoman (Paris, 1897-1902), vol. 3:144-150, 223-228; and for these texts as well as other related documents, see CL 1013, pp. 23-35. For an analysis of the Règlement as a legal text and a critical edition of it with all the amendments until 1912, see Engin Akarli, "Cebel-i Lübnan'da Mutasarriflik Düzeni, 1861-1915" (docentship thesis, Bosphorus University, Istanbul, 1981), 41-50, 198-201, 240-250. Also see Spagnolo, France and Ottoman Lebanon , 45-46, 81-96. The official Ottoman-Turkish version of the 1864 Règlement is available in Düstûr , 1st series (Istanbul, 1289-1335 [1872-1943] and 1937-1943, vol. 4:695-701). The official Arabic translations of the 1861 and 1864 versions of the Règlement are available in Rustum, Lubnân , 35-39 and 55-61, respectively.