1. J. H. Kennedy, Jesuit and Savage in New France (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1950), 44-46; Axtell, The Invasion Within , 65-70.

2. Kennedy, Jesuit and Savage , 48-50; Lucien Campeau, S.J., "Roman Catholic Missions in New France," in Handbook of North American Indians , vol. 4: History of Indian-White Relations , ed. Wilcomb E. Washburn (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1988), 464-71; Jesuit Relations 68:79; Vecsey, Traditional Ojibwa Religion , 45.

3. Jacqueline Peterson, "Ethnogenesis: The Settlement and Growth of a 'New People' in the Great Lakes Region, 1702-1815," in An Anthology of Western Great Lakes Indian History , ed. Donald L. Fixico (Milwaukee: American Indian Studies, University of Wisconsin, 1987), 111-77.

4. Campeau, "Roman Catholic Missions"; John Boatman, "Historical Overview of the Wisconsin Area: From Early Years to the French, British, and Americans," in Fixico, Anthology of Western Great Lakes Indian History , 13-68; Mary Doris Mulvey, O.P., French Catholic Missionaries in the Present United States, 1604-1791 , Catholic University of America Studies in Church History, no. 23 (Washington, D.C.: Catholic University, 1936), 41-54; Sr. Mary Aquinas Norton, Catholic Missionary Activities in the Northwest, 1818-1864 (Washington, D.C.: Catholic University, 1930), 6; Vecsey, Traditional Ojibwa Religion , 27.

5. Kennedy, Jesuit and Savage , 53; John Dawson Gilmary Shea, History of the Catholic Missions Among the Indian Tribes of the United States, 1529-1854 (New York: E. Dunnigan, 1855), 619.

6. Methodists (later extremely active in missions to Indians both through English and American mission societies) did not arrive in the colonies until 1768, and they waited until the 1790s to begin systematic proselytizing; see Charles L. Chaney, The Birth of Missions in America (South Pasadena, Calif.: William Carey Library, 1976), 98-114. The New England Company had missionaries to Indians for one hundred years (70-71).

7. Jack H. Steinbring, "Saulteaux of Lake Winnipeg," in Helm, Subarctic , 244-55; Charles A. Bishop, The Northern Ojibwa and the Fur Trade: An Historical and Ecological Study (Montreal: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1974), 308-21; Vecsey, Traditional Ojibwa Religion , 12-15.

8. James McKenzie, "The King's Posts and Journal of a Canoe Jaunt Through the King's Domains, 1808: The Saguenay and the Labrador Coast," in Les bourgeois de la Compagnie du Nord-Ouest: Récits de voyages, Lettres et Rapports Inedits Relatifs au Nord-Ouest Canadien , ed. L. R. Masson (Quebec: A. Cote, 1889-90; reprinted New York: Antiquarian Press, 1960), 2:412-13.

9. Bishop, Northern Ojibwa and the Fur Trade , 10-12, 236-45; Rande S. Aaronson, "Workers and Wages in the Canadian Fur Trade, 1773-1775," unpublished paper.

10. Duncan Cameron, "The Nipigon Country, 1804, with Extracts from His Journal," in Masson, Les bourgeois de la Compagnie du Nord-Ouest 2:295-96; see also Peter Grant, "The Sauteux Indians About 1804," in ibid., 2:325, on Indians cheating traders.

9. Bishop, Northern Ojibwa and the Fur Trade , 10-12, 236-45; Rande S. Aaronson, "Workers and Wages in the Canadian Fur Trade, 1773-1775," unpublished paper.

10. Duncan Cameron, "The Nipigon Country, 1804, with Extracts from His Journal," in Masson, Les bourgeois de la Compagnie du Nord-Ouest 2:295-96; see also Peter Grant, "The Sauteux Indians About 1804," in ibid., 2:325, on Indians cheating traders.

11. Cameron, "Nipigon Country," 2:296; Bishop, Northern Ojibwa and the Fur Trade, 11-12, 245-56.

12. Charles McKenzie, Hudson's Bay Company Archives B 107/ a/8; cited in Bishop, Northern Ojibwa and the Fur Trade , 283.

13. Bishop, Northern Ojibwa and the Fur Trade , 39, 265; David Thompson, David Thompson's Narrative, of His Explorations in Western America, 1784-1812, ed. J. B. Tyrrell (Toronto: Champlain Society, 1916; reprinted New York: Greenwood Press, 1968), 70.

14. George Keith, "Letters to Mr. Roderic McKenzie, 1807-1817," in Masson, Les bourgeois de la Compagnie du Nord-Ouest 2:61-132; Willard Ferdinand Wentzel, "Letters to the Hon. Roderic McKenzie, 1807-1824," in ibid., 1:67-153; Edward Umfreville, The Present State of Hudson's Bay, Containing a Full Description of That Settlement and the Adjacent Country and Likewise of the Fur Trade, with Hints for Its Improvement (London, 1790), 66-67.

13. Bishop, Northern Ojibwa and the Fur Trade , 39, 265; David Thompson, David Thompson's Narrative, of His Explorations in Western America, 1784-1812, ed. J. B. Tyrrell (Toronto: Champlain Society, 1916; reprinted New York: Greenwood Press, 1968), 70.

14. George Keith, "Letters to Mr. Roderic McKenzie, 1807-1817," in Masson, Les bourgeois de la Compagnie du Nord-Ouest 2:61-132; Willard Ferdinand Wentzel, "Letters to the Hon. Roderic McKenzie, 1807-1824," in ibid., 1:67-153; Edward Umfreville, The Present State of Hudson's Bay, Containing a Full Description of That Settlement and the Adjacent Country and Likewise of the Fur Trade, with Hints for Its Improvement (London, 1790), 66-67.

15. Sylvia Van Kirk, "Many Tender Ties": Women in Fur-Trade Society, 1670-1870 (Winnipeg: Watson & Dwyer, 1980), 9-27.

16. Henry Kelsey, The Kelsey Papers (Ottawa: Public Archives of Canada and Public Record Office of Northern Ireland, 1929), 21. For

more on Kelsey, see K. G. Davies, "Henry Kelsey," Dictionary of Canadian Biography , ed. Francess G. Halpenny (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1966-90), 2:307-15.

17. P. Grant, "Sauteux Indians," 2:321. Xanthippes was married to Socrates and noted for her sharp tongue and vehement manner.

18. Philip Turnor, Journals of Samuel Hearne and Philip Turnor , ed. J. B. Tyrrell (Toronto: Champlain Society, 1934), 273.

19. John McDonnell, "Some Account of the Red River (About 1797), with Extracts from His Journal, 1793-1795," in Masson, Les bourgeois de la Compagnie du Nord-Ouest 1:278. Evidence of women's authority and social value applied as well to groups such as the Dogribs, Beaver, and Slaves—Athapaskan-speaking groups in the western subarctic whose men, since the inception of the fur trade, apparently held women in decreasing regard. Willard Ferdinand Wentzel, a Norwegian employed by the North West Company and married to a Montagnais woman, observed in a letter to Roderic McKenzie in 1807 that there appeared to be few women among the Beaver Indians at the Forks area of the Mackenzie River, a fact that he attributed to female infanticide. "The only reason they five for this barbarous custom," he explained, "is that it is a great deal of trouble to bring up girls, and that women are only an encumbrance, useless in time of war and exceedingly voracious in time of want." Yet in the same letter he went on to say that ''their husbands are very kind to them, their only business being to make the men's clothes and their own, while the men's work is to chop wood, strike fire, make the campment, hunt, &c, &c." (Wentzel, "Letters,'' 1:86-87). McKenzie also received a letter that same year from George Keith, who spent most of his career in the western subarctic and was a chief factor for the Hudson's Bay Company after the 1821 merger. Keith described the life of Beaver women in glowing terms: "The women are indulged with everything attainable, without being subjected to any brutal treatment or hard menial labour, as many other tribes in this country." Several years later his views had not changed: "The women seldom prepare the lodge in winter, or go for wood unless the husband is absent and the men perform all the hard labours, so indulgent they are to the women." Dogrib women from Filthy Lake impressed Keith as well, about whom he noted that they "are gently treated and have considerable influence over the men" (Keith, "Letters," 2:70, 115).

20. Thompson, Narrative , xv, xxv, xlv, 82, 246 (quote). For full biographical information on Thompson, see John Nicks, "David Thompson," in Halpenny, Dictionary of Canadian Biography 8:878-84.

21. Thompson, Narrative , 82.

22. Ibid., 164.

23. Ibid., 92.

24. Ibid.

25. Ibid., 88, 108; see also Frances Densmore, Chippewa Customs , Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin no. 86 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1929), 29.

21. Thompson, Narrative , 82.

22. Ibid., 164.

23. Ibid., 92.

24. Ibid.

25. Ibid., 88, 108; see also Frances Densmore, Chippewa Customs , Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin no. 86 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1929), 29.

21. Thompson, Narrative , 82.

22. Ibid., 164.

23. Ibid., 92.

24. Ibid.

25. Ibid., 88, 108; see also Frances Densmore, Chippewa Customs , Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin no. 86 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1929), 29.

21. Thompson, Narrative , 82.

22. Ibid., 164.

23. Ibid., 92.

24. Ibid.

25. Ibid., 88, 108; see also Frances Densmore, Chippewa Customs , Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin no. 86 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1929), 29.

21. Thompson, Narrative , 82.

22. Ibid., 164.

23. Ibid., 92.

24. Ibid.

25. Ibid., 88, 108; see also Frances Densmore, Chippewa Customs , Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin no. 86 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1929), 29.

26. For more on Cameron, see Jennifer S. H. Brown, "Duncan Cameron," in Halpenny, Dictionary of Canadian Biography 7:137-39.

27. Cameron, "Nipigon Country," 2:257.

28. Ruth Schwartz Cowan, More Work for Mother: The Ironies of Household Technology, from the Open Hearth to the Microwave (New York: Basic Books, 1983), chaps. 2-3.

29. Cameron, "Nipigon Country," 2:257, 258.

30. Ibid., 262-63.

29. Cameron, "Nipigon Country," 2:257, 258.

30. Ibid., 262-63.

31. James Isham, James Isham's Observations on Hudsons Bay, 1743; and Notes and Observations on a Book Entitled "A Voyage to Hudsons Bay in the Dobbs Galley, 1749," ed. E. E. Rich (Toronto: Champlain Society, 1949), 98.

32. Cameron, "Nipigon Country," 2:263. See also Martin, Keepers of the Game , 64; Jesuit Relations 3:105-9.

33. John Tanner, Narrative of the Captivity and Adventures of John Tanner (U.S. Interpreter at the Sault de Ste. Marie) During Thirty Years Residence Among the Indians in the Interior of North America , ed. Edwin James (New York: G. & C. & H. Carvil, 1830), 47. See also Charles Chaboillez, "Journal of Charles Jean Baptiste Chaboillez, 1797-1798," ed. Harold Hickerson, Ethnohistory 6, no. 3 (1959): 265-316; 6, no. 4 (1959): 363-427.

34. Speck, Naskapi , 94, 115, 180-83; A. Tanner, Bringing Home Animals , 125-26, 136-37, 140.

35. J. Tanner, Narrative , 67.

36. Henry Schoolcraft, The Indian in His Wigwam, or Characteristics of the Red Race of America (Buffalo, 1848), 169-73, cited in Priscilla K. Buffalohead, "Farmers, Warriors, Traders: A Fresh Look at Ojibway Women," Minnesota History 48 (Summer 1983): 236-44.

37. Thompson, Narrative , 246.

38. Selwyn Dewdney, The Sacred Scrolls of the Southern Ojibwa (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1975), 163-67; Ritzenthaler, "Southwestern Chippewa"; Martin, Keepers of the Game , 84-85; Harold Hickerson, "Notes on the Post-Contact Origin of the Midewiwin," Ethnohistory 9 (1962): 406.

39. P. Grant, "Sauteux Indians," 356.

40. Vecsey, Traditional Ojibwa Religion , 156, 182-83.

41. P. Grant, "The Sauteux Indians," 361.

42. Landes, Ojibwa Religion , 89.

43. Ibid., 91; Densmore, Chippewa Customs , 87.

42. Landes, Ojibwa Religion , 89.

43. Ibid., 91; Densmore, Chippewa Customs , 87.

44. J. Tanner, Narrative , passim.

45. Thompson, Narrative , 255; Vecsey, Traditional Ojibwa Religion , 141.

46. J. Tanner, Narrative , 135.

47. Isham, Observations , 100.

48. Cameron, "Nipigon Country," 2:250; Morton I. Teicher, Windigo Psychosis: A Study of a Relationship Between Belief and Behavior Among the Indians of Northeastern Canada (New York: AMS Press, 1985).

49. Vivian J. Rohrl, "A Nutritional Factor in Windigo Psychosis," American Anthropologist 72 (1970): 97-101, suggests that the remedy of ingesting tallow was nutritionally based, to counteract a dietary deficiency in ascorbic acid (of which bear fat has a high content), which possibly caused the psychosis. This hypothesis has been challenged by Jennifer S. H. Brown, "The Cure and Feeding of Windigos: A Critique," American Anthropologist 73 (1971): 19-22.

50. George Nelson, " The Orders of the Dreamed": George Nelson on Cree and Northern Ojibwa Religion and Myth , ed. Jennifer S. H. Brown and Robert Brightman, Manitoba Studies in History, vol. 3 (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society, 1988), 170. See also Steinbring, "Saulteaux," 253.

51. Cameron, "Nipigon Country," 2:250; also Nelson, " Orders of the Dreamed , 94.

52. Nelson, " Orders of the Dreamed ," 94.

53. Thompson, Narrative , 259-60.

54. Ruth Landes, "The Abnormal Among the Ojibwa Indians," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 33 (1938): 14-33; Seymour Parker, "The Wiitiko Psychosis in the Context of Ojibwa Personality and Culture," American Anthropologist 62 (1960): 603-23, contends that the syndrome is primarily male and suggests that the personality development and socialization of Ojibwa males, which emphasize success, might provoke psychosis when an individual fails in hunting. Teicher's study of seventy reported psychosis cases, however, showed a four-to-three ratio between males and females (''Windigo Psychosis''). See also Raymond D. Fogelson, "Psychological Theories of Windigo 'Psychosis' and a Preliminary Application of a Models Approach," in Context and Meaning in Cultural Anthropology , ed. Melford E. Spiro (New York: Free Press, 1965), 74-99.

55. Early references to windigos do not mention cannibalism; it is debatable whether the concept developed after European contact or if observers did not understand the descriptions they were given by Indians. For more information, see Jennifer S. H. Brown and Robert Brightman, "Northern Algonquian Religious and Mythic Themes and Personages: Context and Comparisons," in Nelson, " Orders of the Dreamed ," 161. For an analysis of a similar phenomenon, stress-related witch hunting in Salem, see Paul Boyer and Stephen Nissenbaum, Salem Possessed: The Social Origins of Witchcraft (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1974).