1. Oscar Handlin, The Uprooted , 2nd ed. (Boston: Little, Brown, 1973 [1951]), 274-75.

2. Alejandro Portes and Rubén G. Rumbaut, Immigrant America: A Portrait (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1990). The argument elaborated in this book provides the point of departure for this chapter.

3. See Portes and Rumbaut, Immigrant America , chapter 1; Stephen Steinberg, The Ethnic Myth: Race, Ethnicity, and Class in America , 2nd ed. (Boston: Beacon Press, 1989); "Immigrants: Special Issue," Time (July 8, 1985); Annelise Orleck, "The Soviet Jews: Life in Brighton Beach, Brooklyn," in New Immigrants in New York , ed. Nancy Foner (New York: Columbia University Press, 1987), 279; Thomas B. Rosenstiel, "L.A. Papers Speak a New Language," Los Angeles Times (November 9, 1987), A1; William Broyles, Jr., "The Promise of America," U.S. News & World Report (July 7, 1986): 25-31; Peter I. Rose, "Asian Americans: From Pariahs to Paragons," in Clamor at the Gates: The New American Immigration , ed. Nathan Glazer (San Francisco: Institute for Contemporary Studies, 1985), 182; "Ex-Pasadena Resident Earns Seventh Degree," Houston Chronicle (November 17, 1988), 26A; "Those Asian-American Whiz Kids," Time (August 31, 1987): 42-47; William A. Henry III, "Beyond the Melting Pot," Time (April 9, 1990): 29; Lawrence H. Fuchs, "Strangers and Members: The American Approach," Brandeis Review 6, no. 2 (Winter 1987): 3; New York Times (June 23, 1983), quoted in Ishmael Reed, "What's American about America? Toward Claiming Our Multicultural Heritage," Utne Reader (March-April 1989): 100.

4. Aristide R. Zolberg, "The Next Waves: Migration Theory for a Changing World," International Migration Review 23, no. 3 (Fall 1989): 403-30; Alejandro Portes and József Borocz, "Contemporary Immigration: Theoretical Perspectives on Its Determinants and Modes of Incorporation," International Migration Review 23, no. 3 (Fall 1989): 606-30. See also Aristide R. Zolberg, Astri Suhrke, and Sergio Aguayo, Escape from Violence: Conflict and the Refugee Crisis in the Developing World (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989); and the papers collected continue

in Mary M. Kritz, ed., U.S. Immigration and Refugee Policy: Global and Domestic Issues (Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books, 1983).

5. Mary M. Kritz, "The Global Picture of Contemporary Immigration Patterns," in Pacific Bridges: The New Immigration from Asia and the Pacific Islands , ed. James T. Fawcett and Benjamin V. Cariño (Staten Island, N.Y.: Center for Migration Studies, 1987), 29-51.

6. Michael J. Piore, Birds of Passage: Migrant Labor and Industrial Societies (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979), 149-54; Maxine Seller, To Seek America: A History of Ethnic Life in the United States (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Jerome S. Ozer, 1977), 104-6; Alejandro Portes and Robert L. Bach, Latin Journey: Cuban and Mexican Immigrants in the United States (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1985), chapter 2; Leonard Dinnerstein, Roger L. Nichols, and David M. Reimers, Natives and Strangers: Blacks, Indians, and Immigrants in America , 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), chapter 5.

7. For an analysis of changing immigrant sex ratios in recent decades, see Marion F. Houstoun, Roger G. Kramer, and Joan M. Barrett, "Female Predominance in Immigration to the United States Since 1930: A First Look," International Migration Review 18, no. 4 (Winter 1984): 908-59. On the development of migration networks, see also John Bodnar, The Transplanted: A History of Immigrants in Urban America (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987); Robert R. Alvarez, Jr., Familia: Migration and Adaptation in Baja and Alta California, 1800-1975 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1987); Douglas Massey, Rafael Alarcón, Jorge Durand, and Humberto González, Return to Aztlán: The Social Process of International Migration from Western Mexico (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1987); Sherri Grasmuck and Patricia Pessar, Between Two Islands: Dominican International Migration (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1991).

8. The Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) reported that a total of 3,038,825 illegal immigrants applied for legalization under IRCA by the 1989 deadline. These include immigrants who had resided in the United States since January 1, 1982, or who had been employed in seasonal agricultural work during 1985-86 ("Special Agricultural Workers"). Note that the annual INS data in tables 10.1, 10.2, and 10.3 refer to the years in which those immigrants were admitted to permanent resident status, which are not necessarily their years of arrival in the United States. Especially for refugees and others who are exempt from numerical quotas, but also for persons who entered with nonimmigrant visas (such as students) and later applied for permanent residency, there may be a time lag of a few years between their actual arrival and their formal adjustment to immigrant status. For that matter, many of the IRCA applicants (who will be counted in the INS legal admissions totals for 1989 and subsequent years, as their status is adjusted) probably arrived in the United States during the 1970s.

9. See Leon F. Bouvier and Robert W. Gardner, "Immigration to the U.S.: The Unfinished Story," Population Bulletin 41, no. 4 (November 1986).

10. David M. Reimers, Still the Golden Door: The Third World Comes to America (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985), 76; Thomas Kessner and Betty Boyd Caroli, Today's Immigrants (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982), 12-13. break

11. U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service, Statistical Yearbook, 1988 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1989), xviii.

12. Calculated from annual data reported in U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service, Statistical Yearbooks , 1978-89, and Annual Reports , 1970-77. For recent analyses of "chain migration" processes in U.S. immigration, see the papers collected in International Migration Review 23, no. 4 (Winter 1989); and Guillermina Jasso and Mark R. Rosenzweig, "Family Reunification and the Immigration Multiplier: U.S. Immigration Law, Origin-Country Conditions, and the Reproduction of Immigrants," Demography 23, no. 3 (August 1986): 291-311. For trends in refugee ceilings and admissions, see Refugee Reports 10, no. 12 (December 29, 1989): 6-9.

13. David W. Haines, ed., Refugees in the United States (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1985); Silvia Pedraza-Bailey, Political and Economic Migrants in America: Cubans and Mexicans (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1985); Rubén G. Rumbaut, "The Structure of Refuge: Southeast Asian Refugees in the United States, 1975-1985," International Journal of Comparative Public Policy 1 (1989): 97-129; Rubén G. Rumbaut, "The Agony of Exile," in Refugee Children: Theory, Research, and Services , ed. Frederick L. Ahearn, Jr., and Jean L. Athey (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991).

14. See Karen Tumulty, "When Irish Eyes Are Hiding . . . ," Los Angeles Times (January 29, 1989), A1; Portes and Rumbaut, Immigrant America , 230; Dinnerstein, Nichols, and Reimers, Natives and Strangers , 274-77.

15. The number of Border Patrol apprehensions of persons illegally crossing the U.S.-Mexico border surpassed one million during "Operation Wetback" in 1954, decreased to a low of 45,000 in 1959, and thereafter increased steadily each year until it reached a historical high of 1.8 million arrests in 1986, the year IRCA was passed; apprehensions then declined until 1989, when they suddenly increased again. In San Diego, where more arrests are recorded than anywhere else along the border, apprehensions totaled 215,860 during the six-month period of October 1989 to March 1990—an increase of over 50 percent from the 141,611 arrests made during the corresponding period a year before. Borderwide, total apprehensions increased by over one-third, from 341,675 to 472,121, for the same period. Illegal crossings follow a seasonal pattern; they are typically lowest during the fall and winter months, then rise sharply after Easter and during the summer months. See Patrick McDonnell, "Illegal Border Crossings Rise After 3-Year Fall," Los Angeles Times (April 22, 1990), A1; U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service, Statistical Yearbook , 1989, xxxviii-xxxix, 109. See also Wayne A. Cornelius, "Mexican Immigration in California Today" (keynote presentation to the UCLA conference "California Immigrants in World Perspective," Los Angeles, April 26, 1990); Frank D. Bean, George Vernez, and Charles B. Keely, Opening and Closing the Doors: Evaluating Immigration Reform and Control (Washington, D.C.: Urban Institute Press, 1989).

16. Leonel Castillo, "Current Policies and the Effects of the Immigration Reform and Control Act on 'Extra-Legal' Refugees" (keynote presentation at the World Federation for Mental Health Conference on Immigrants and Refugees, Houston, March 24, 1990). break

17. U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service, Statistical Yearbook , 1989, 44; "Immigration Statistics: Fiscal Year 1989," Advance Report (April 1990).

18. By 1990 the Filipinos had passed the Chinese to become the largest Asian-origin population in the United States; they had already surpassed Japanese-Americans in 1980. See Leon F. Bouvier and Anthony J. Agresta, "The Future Asian Population of the United States," in Pacific Bridges , ed. Fawcett and Cariño, 291-92.

19. See Neal Harlow, California Conquered: The Annexation of a Mexican Province , 1846-1850 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1982); Alvarez, Familia; Massey, Alarcón, Durand, and González, Return to Aztlán .

20. See Stanley Karnow, In Our Image: America's Empire in the Philippines (New York: Random House, 1989); Benjamin V. Cariño, "The Philippines and Southeast Asia: Historical Roots and Contemporary Linkages," in Pacific Bridges , ed. Fawcett and Cariño, 305-26; Antonio J. A. Pido, The Philipinos in America: Macro/Micro Dimensions of Immigration and Integration (Staten Island, N.Y.: Center for Migration Studies, 1986).

21. Reimers, Still the Golden Door , 29. It is more than an ironic coincidence that in Battery Park at the tip of Manhattan, just across New York Harbor from Ellis Island and the Statue of Liberty, a visitor will find a war memorial as well as several monuments memorializing the immigrant in American history, including the old Castle Garden depot through which most immigrants were processed until Ellis Island opened in 1892. One of these monuments—a few yards away from the Emma Lazarus memorial and her paean to "The New Colossus"—was erected on the "Admiral George Dewey Promenade" to commemorate the seventy-fifth anniversary of the battle of Manila Bay in 1898, which began the American colonization of the Philippines. The visitor cannot help but be struck by the "monumental" connection here, especially in light of the fact that Filipinos constitute the largest Asian-origin immigrant population in the United States today. It is curious that, except for refugee movements, the literature on recent immigration has paid scant attention to the role of the American military state and of politico-military relationships.

22. See Rubén G. Rumbaut and John R. Weeks, "Infant Health among Indochinese Refugees: Patterns of Infant Mortality, Birthweight and Prenatal Care in Comparative Perspective," Research in the Sociology of Health Care 8 (1989): 137-96.

23. See Ronald Takaki, Strangers from a Different Shore: A History of Asian Americans (Boston: Little, Brown, 1989); Ivan Light and Edna Bonacich, Immigrant Entrepreneurs: Koreans in Los Angeles, 1965-1982 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1988); Illsoo Kim, "Korea and East Asia: Premigration Factors and U.S. Immigration Policy," in Pacific Bridges , ed. Fawcett and Cariño, 327-46; Stanley Karnow, Vietnam: A History (New York: Viking, 1983); Urmil Minocha, "South Asian Immigrants: Trends and Impacts on the Sending and Receiving Countries," in Pacific Bridges , ed. Fawcett and Cariño, 347-74; Grasmuck and Pessar, Between Two Islands .

24. Kim, "Korea and East Asia," 329.

25. See also Portes and Rumbaut, Immigrant America , chapter 7; Portes and continue

Borocz, "Contemporary Immigration"; Christopher Mitchell, "International Migration, International Relations and Foreign Policy," International Migration Review 23, no. 3 (Fall 1989): 681-708.

26. Data on international economic rankings are 1985 estimates for 211 countries compiled by The Economist and published in The World in Figures (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1987). The fact that the United States was deeply involved in Indochina but not in Afghanistan or Ethiopia helps explain why Indochinese refugees were resettled in large numbers but Afghans and Ethiopians were not; see Astri Suhrke and Frank Klink, "Contrasting Patterns of Asian Refugee Movements: The Vietnamese and Afghan Syndromes," in Pacific Bridges , ed. Fawcett and Cariño, 85-104.

27. Alfonso Mejia, Helena Pizurki, and Erica Royston, Foreign Medical Graduates: The Case of the United States (Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books, 1980); Rosemary Stevens, Louis W. Goodman, and Stephen S. Mick, The Alien Doctors: Foreign Medical Graduates in American Hospitals (New York: Wiley, 1978).

28. For a detailed analysis of the social process of foreign medical graduate (FMG) immigration to the United States, see Stevens, Goodman, and Mick, The Alien Doctors . For data on sending countries' proportions of FMGs, see Mejia, Pizurki, and Royston, Foreign Medical Graduates , 145-49. On the dramatic migration of Thai physicians, see Reimers, Still the Golden Door , 101. See also Charles Marwick, "Foreign Medical Graduates in U.S. Postdoctoral Programs: Concern Rises as Total Declines," Journal of the American Medical Association 257, no. 19 (May 15, 1987): 2535-37; "U.S. MD Glut Limits Demand for FMG Physicians," Hospitals 62, no. 3 (February 5, 1988): 67-69.

29. Robert Gillette, "Threat to Security Cited in Rise of Foreign Engineers," Los Angeles Times (January 20, 1988), A1; "Wanted: Fresh, Homegrown Talent," Time (January 11, 1988): 65; "Those Asian-American Whiz Kids," Time (August 31, 1987): 42-47; "Elegiacal: It Spells Success for Bee Champ," Los Angeles Times (June 3, 1988), A1; "2 in New York Are Top Science Winners," New York Times (March 1, 1988), A1; Portes and Rumbaut, Immigrant America , chapter 6.

30. See Rumbaut, "The Structure of Refuge"; Sonni Efron, "Sweatshops Expanding into Orange County," Los Angeles Times (November 26, 1989), A1. For a comparative analysis of "Asian" and "Jewish" cultural stereotypes of successful minority groups, see Steinberg, The Ethnic Myth , 263-302. For studies of the development of informal sectors in immigrant communities in New York, Miami, and Southern California, see Alejandro Portes, Manuel Castells, and Lauren A. Benton, eds., The Informal Economy: Studies in Advanced and Less-Developed Countries (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989).

31. See Joan Moore and Harry Pachon, Hispanics in the United States (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1985); James D. Cockcroft, Outlaws in the Promised Land: Mexican Immigrant Workers and America's Future (New York: Grove Press, 1986); Joseph P. Fitzpatrick, Puerto Rican Americans: The Meaning of Migration to the Mainland , 2nd ed. (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1987); George J. Borjas and Marta Tienda, eds., Hispanics in the U.S. Economy (Orlando, Fla.: Academic Press, 1985). For two comparative studies of the effects of different social class origins and contexts of reception on the incorporation of Cu- soft

bans and Mexicans in the United States, see Portes and Bach, Latin Journey , and Pedraza-Bailey, Political and Economic Migrants in America .

32. Portes and Rumbaut, Immigrant America , 11-14, 247. See also Ted Conover, Coyotes: A Journey through the Secret World of America's Illegal Aliens (New York: Vintage Books, 1987); Grasmuck and Pessar, Between Two Islands; Jake C. Miller, The Plight of Haitian Refugees (New York: Praeger, 1984). Information on fees paid by Vietnamese "boat people" was obtained through personal interviews with refugees in San Diego, California. Interestingly, exchange arrangements via family branches similar to those reported by the Vietnamese have been developed by Soviet Jewish émigrés who are forbidden to take anything of value with them when they leave the U.S.S.R.; see Orleck, "The Soviet Jews," in New Immigrants in New York , ed. Foner, 289.

33. See Portes and Rumbaut, Immigrant America , chapters 2-4.

34. Ibid., chapter 2; see also Foner, New Immigrants in New York .

35. Gillette, "Threat to Security Cited in Rise of Foreign Engineers."

36. See Stevens, Goodman, and Mick, The Alien Doctors; it remains the most comprehensive available study of FMGs in the United States. See also Reimers, Still the Golden Door , 101; "FMG Residents Expensive to Replace," Hospitals 62, no. 10 (May 20, 1988): 77.

37. The most comprehensive analysis to date is Julian L. Simon, The Economic Consequences of Immigration (Cambridge, Mass.: Basil Blackwell, 1989). See also Portes and Rumbaut, Immigrant America , 235-39; George J. Borjas, Friends or Strangers: The Impact of Immigrants on the U.S. Economy (New York: Basic Books, 1990); and Borjas, "Economic Theory and International Migration," International Migration Review 23, no. 3 (Fall 1989): 437-85; Frank D. Bean, B. Lindsay Lowell, and Lowell J. Taylor, "Undocumented Mexican Immigrants and the Earnings of Other Workers in the United States," Demography 25, no. 1 (February 1988): 35-52; Borjas and Tienda, eds., Hispanics in the U.S. Economy; Adriana Marshall, "New Immigrants in New York's Economy," in New Immigrants in New York , ed. Foner, 79-101; Thomas Muller and Thomas J. Espenshade, The Fourth Wave: California's Newest Immigrants (Washington, D.C.: Urban Institute, 1985).

38. For specific findings see Simon, The Economic Consequences of Immigration . See also Ellen Seghal, "Foreign Born in the U.S. Labor Market: The Results of a Special Survey," Monthly Labor Review (July 1985): 18-24. As noted earlier, immigrants (but not refugees) granted permanent resident status are legally restricted from receiving welfare assistance such as AFDC and SSI during their first three years in the United States. In addition, a 1989 government survey of a sample of 5000 IRCA applicants in California, where over half of the undocumented population is concentrated, found that over 90 percent of the pre-1982 immigrants and 94 percent of the "special agricultural workers" had never collected food stamps or any other type of welfare assistance; see Maria Newman, "Immigrant Poll Debunks Some Myths," Los Angeles Times (March 21, 1990), A1.

39. Light and Bonacich, Immigrant Entrepreneurs , 3-4. A similar propensity for self-employment has been reported for Korean immigrants in New York City; see Ilsoo Kim, "The Koreans: Small Business in an Urban Frontier," in New Immigrants in New York , ed. Foner, 219-42. For an analysis based on 1980 census continue

data of the higher rates of self-employment among the foreign-born compared to the native-born, see Ivan Light and Angel A. Sanchez, "Immigrant Entrepreneurs in 272 SMSAs," Sociological Perspectives 30, no. 4 (October 1987): 373-99.

40. Alejandro Portes and Leif Jensen, "The Enclave and the Entrants: Patterns of Ethnic Enterprise in Miami Before and After Mariel," American Sociological Review 54 (December 1989): 929-49; Portes and Bach, Latin Journey , chapter 6; Alejandro Portes and Alex Stepick, "Unwelcome Immigrants: The Labor Market Experiences of 1980 (Mariel) Cuban and Haitian Refugees in South Florida," American Sociological Review 50 (August 1985): 493-514; Alejandro Portes, "The Social Origins of the Cuban Enclave Economy of Miami," Sociological Perspectives 30, no. 4 (October 1987): 340-72; Lisandro Pérez, "Immigrant Economic Adjustment and Family Organization: The Cuban Success Story Reexamined," International Migration Review 20, no. 1 (Spring 1986): 4-20.

41. Takaki, Strangers from a Different Shore , 425-26. For an analysis of different patterns of Chinese enterprise in New York City between the pre-1965 Lo Wa Kiu ("old overseas Chinese") and the post-1965 San Yi Man ("new immigrants"), see Bernard Wong, "The Chinese: New Immigrants in New York's Chinatown," in New Immigrants in New York , ed. Foner, 243-71.

42. Cornelius, "Mexican Immigrants in California Today"; Portes, Castells, and Benton, The Informal Economy; Light and Bonacich, Immigrant Entrepreneurs . For local coverage of recent events, see John M. Glionna, "Attacks on Migrants Heighten Tension," Los Angeles Times (January 6, 1990), B1; Bruce Kelley, "El Mosco," Los Angeles Times Magazine 6, no. 11 (March 18, 1990): 11-43; Efron, "Sweatshops Expanding into Orange County"; Sam Fulwood III, "'86 Immigration Law Causes Job Bias, Study Says," Los Angeles Times (March 30, 1990), A1. The GAO report is based on a 1989 study of 360 major employers in Chicago and San Diego, done by the Urban Institute.

43. Rumbaut, "The Structure of Refuge." See also the studies collected in David W. Haines, ed., Refugees as Immigrants: Cambodians, Laotians, and Vietnamese in America (Totowa, N.J.: Rowman & Littlefield, 1989); David S. North, Refugee Earnings and Utilization of Financial Assistance Programs (Washington, D.C.: New TransCentury Foundation, 1984); Robert L. Bach, Rita Carroll-Seguin, and David Howell, State-Sponsored Immigrants: Southeast Asian Refugees and the Use of Public Assistance (Washington, D.C.: Office of Refugee Resettlement, 1986); Nathan Caplan, John K. Whitmore, and Marcella H. Choy, The Boat People and Achievement in America (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1989), 52-65; Rubén G. Rumbaut and John R. Weeks, "Fertility and Adaptation: Indochinese Refugees in the United States," International Migration Review 20, no. 2 (Summer 1986): 428-66; Rubén G. Rumbaut, Leo R. Chávez, Robert Moser, Sheila Pickwell, and Samuel Wishik, "The Politics of Migrant Health Care: A Comparative Study of Mexican Immigrants and Indochinese Refugees," Research in the Sociology of Health Care 7 (1988): 148-202.

44. Detailed information on Limited English Proficient and Fluent English Proficient enrollments by language groups, grade levels, and school districts is published semestrally by the California State Department of Education (Sacramento); see State of California Educational Demographics Unit, "Language Census Report for California Public Schools" (1989), and State of California Bi- soft

lingual Education Office, "Data/BICAL Reports" (1989-90 and previous years). See also Rubén G. Rumbaut, Immigrant Students in California Public Schools: A Summary of Current Knowledge , CDS Report No. 11 (Baltimore: Center for Research on Effective Schooling for Disadvantaged Students, Johns Hopkins University, 1990); and Laurie Olsen, Crossing the Schoolhouse Border: Immigrant Students and the California Public Schools (San Francisco: California Tomorrow, 1988). The number of LEP students in public schools nationwide was estimated at between 3.5 and 5.5 million by the mid-1980s; see Joan M. First and John W. Carrera, New Voices: Immigrant Students in U.S. Public Schools (Boston: National Coalition of Advocates for Students, 1988), 42-49.

45. For a comprehensive review of the literature, see Kenji Hakuta, Mirror of Language: The Debate on Bilingualism (New York: Basic Books, 1986).

46. Rubén G. Rumbaut and Kenji Ima, "Determinants of Educational Attainment among Indochinese Refugees and Other Immigrant Students" (paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Sociological Association, Atlanta, August 25, 1988); Portes and Rumbaut, Immigrant America , chapter 6.

47. Marcelo M. Suárez-Orozco, Central American Refugees and U.S. High Schools: A Psychosocial Study of Motivation and Achievement (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1989); Caplan, Whitmore, and Choy, The Boat People and Achievement in America; Margaret A. Gibson, Accommodation without Assimilation: Sikh Immigrants in an American High School (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1989); María Eugenia Matute-Bianchi, "Ethnic Identity and Patterns of School Success and Failure among Mexican-Descent and Japanese-American Students in a California High School," American Journal of Education 95, no. 1 (November 1986): 233-55; Sylvia A. Valverde, "A Comparative Study of Hispanic High School Dropouts and Graduates: Why Do Some Leave School Early and Some Finish?" Education and Urban Society 19, no. 3 (May 1987): 320-29.

48. Portes and Rumbaut, Immigrant America , chapter 6; Calvin Veltman, Language Shift in the United States (Berlin: Mouton, 1983); David E. López, "Chicano Language Loyalty in an Urban Setting," Sociology and Social Research 62 (1978): 267-78.

49. Portes and Rumbaut, Immigrant America , chapter 6.

50. As if to underscore the point, shortly after this chapter was written the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in August 1990 triggered massive refugee flows into Jordan and elsewhere. In addition, the deployment of several hundred thousand American troops to Saudi Arabia raised the ironic prospect of significant future Arab migration to the United States. Concomitantly, the spread of ethnic separatist movements throughout many Soviet republics and the deepening economic crisis in the Soviet Union augured the possibility of large-scale population movements into bordering European countries—which may in turn create new and sudden pressures for resettlement in the United States. The landmark Immigration Act of 1990, signed into law by President Bush in November, became the most sweeping revision of the nation's immigration laws in sixty-six years: it will increase the number of legal immigrants by 40 percent (to approximately 700,000 annually), not including refugees (for whom the 1991 ceiling was boosted to 131,000) nor unauthorized immigration. Who had clearly anticipated these eventualities, or that they may yet combine with present trends in surpris- soft

ing ways to inaugurate a decade of ethnic diversification unprecedented in American history? (For a thoughtful analysis of the new legislation, see Gary E. Rubin and Judith Golub, The Immigration Act of 1990 [New York: American Jewish Committee, December 1990].)