1. The city was known as St. Petersburg from its establishment in May 1703 until August 1914, when its name was changed to the less Germanic Petrograd. On January 26, 1924, the city was renamed once again in honor of Vladimir Illich Lenin and has been known as Leningrad ever since.

2. Located at 59°57' N latitude, Leningrad is the world's most northerly million-plus population center (its North American counterpart at 61°13' N latitude is Anchorage, Alaska). As a result, the sun barely rises for just under six hours on winter's shortest day and dips below the horizon for just over five hours on summer's longest. That is, of course, when the sun is shining in Leningrad at all, for the city has only 31 "clear, cloudless" days during the average year. B. K. Dukinskii, 1000 voprosi i otvetov o Leningrade (Leningrad: Lenizdat, 1974), 53.

3. N. F. Khomutetskii, Peterburg-Leningrad (Leningrad: Lenizdat, 1958), p. 9.

4. Between 1703 and 1983 there were more than 250 floods in the city, including catastrophic floods in 1772, 1777, 1824, 1903, and 1924. The city is particularly prone to floods resulting from winds backing up water in the shal-

low Gulf of Finland into the Neva, as well as from thawing ice upstream in Lake Ladoga. The worst flooding occurs when both phenomena take place simultaneously. Various proposals have been made to control flooding, including the construction of a dam across the Gulf of Finland. Construction began on such a dam in 1980 after the Central Committee of the Communist Party and the USSR Council of Ministers approved proposals put forward by the Leningrad city soviet in December 1979 ("Informatsiia o resheniiakh Ispolnitel'nogo komiteta Leningradskogo gorodskogo soveta narodnykh deputatov: Ob organizatsii upravleniia po stroitel'stvu sooruzhenii zashchity Leningrada ot navodenii, 10 Dekabria, 1979 g.," Biulleten' Ispolnitel'nogo komiteta Leningradskogo gorodskogo soveta narodnykh deputatov, 1980, no. 1:13). Among the numerous articles on the dam project appearing in the Leningrad press, the following provide an overview: P. A. Antonov, "Izvechnyi spor so stikhiei," Leningradskaia panorama, 1984, no. 5:31-33; N. Andreeva, "Most v zalive," Leningradskaia pravda, July 23, 1983, p. 2; "Dublery Futshtoka," ibid., April 28, 1983, p. 3; V. Volkov, ''Dvoinaia nagonnaia," ibid., December 19, 1982, p. 4; Iu. Naritsyn and V. Tarasenko, "Pod natiskom uragana," ibid., November 26, 1982, p. 4; "Damby vykhodiat v more," Leningradskaia panorama, 1982, no. 1:12-15. For a discussion of some of the early plans for the dam project, see S. S. Agalkov, "Chtoby ne bylo navodenii," Stroitel'stvo i arkhitektura Leningrada, 1960, no. 10:10.

5. See, for example, the discussions in I. N. Bozherianov and E. P. Erastov, S. Peterburg' v Petrogo vremia: Kul'turno-istoricheskie ocherki (St. Petersburg: Kh. Krauze, 1903), 1-18; A. V. Predtechenskii, ed., Peterburg Petrovskogo vremeni (Leningrad: Leningradskoe gazetno-zhurnal'noe i knizhnoe izdatel'stvo, 1948), 3-38; V. N. Sashonko, Admiralteistvo (Leningrad: Lenizdat, 1982); L. I. Bastareva and V. I. Sidorova, Petropavlovskaia krepost' (Leningrad: Lenizdat, 1980); and Iu. A. Egorov, The Architectural Planning of St. Petersburg, trans. Eric Dlubosch (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1969).

6. A. N. Krasnova, "Traditsii vsegda sovremennyi," Leningradskaia panorama, 1984, no. 5:20-21.

7. George Heard Hamilton, The Art and Architecture of Russia (Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1975), 180-182; William Craft Brumfield, Gold in Azure: One Thousand Years of Russian Architecture (Boston: David R. Godine, 1983), 227-233.

8. Egorov, Architectural Planning, 18-20; I. N. Bozherianov, Kul'turnoistoricheskii ocherki zhizni S-Peterburga za dva veka XVIII-XIX, 1703-1903 (St. Petersburg, 1903), vii-ix; I. Grabar', Russkoi arkhitekture (Moscow: Nauka, 1969), 264-283; and M. V. Iogansen, V. G. Lisovskii, and N. I. Nikulina, Arkhitektura Vasil'evskogo ostrova v proshlom, nastoiashchem i budushchem (Leningrad: Akademiia khudozhestv SSSR, 1969), 4-7.

9. P. N. Stolpianskii, Staryie Peterburg i obshchestvo pooshchreniia khoduzhestv (Leningrad: Izdanie Komiteta popularizatsii khudozhestvennykh izdanii, 1928), 23.

10. Gerald L. Burke, The Making of Dutch Towns (London: Cleaver-Hume Press, 1966).

11. The importance of the Copenhagen plan for the early development of St. Petersburg should not be underestimated. James Cracraft reminds us that

Peter's ambassador in Copenhagen hired Dominico Trezzini away from service to the Danish king. Trezzini, who worked in Russia from 1703 until his death in 1734, was the architect of the Church of Sts. Peter and Paul in the Peter and Paul Fortress and, as Cracraft demonstrates, perhaps the most influential architect working in Russia during the Petrine period. James Cracraft, The Petrine Revolution in Russian Architecture (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), 141, 154-160, 173-181.

12. D. Arkin, "Perspektivnyi plan Peterburga, 1764-1773," Arkhitekturnoe nasledstvo, 1955, no. 7:13-38; I. A. Bartenev, Zodchie i stroiteli Leningrada (Leningrad: Lenizdat, 1963), 48-67.

13. Brumfield, Gold in Azure, 251-274, 275-312.

14. Hamilton, Art and Architecture, 197-198.

15. Bozherianov, Kul'turno-istoricheskii ocherki ; Egorov, Architectural Planning .

16. Egorov, Architectural Planning, 54-83; Bartenev, Zodchie i stroiteli Leningrada, 68-137.

17. Hamilton, Art and Architecture, 217.

18. Egorov, Architectural Planning, 186-196.

19. James Bater, "The Legacy of Autocracy: Environmental Quality in St. Petersburg," in R. A. French and F. E. Ian Hamilton, eds., The Socialist City: Spatial Structure and Urban Policy (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1979), 23-48; G. B. Vasil'eva, "Vdol' ulits shumnykh . . . ," Leningradskaia panorama, 1984, no. 3:31-33.

20. James Bater, St. Petersburg: Industrialization and Change (Montreal: McGill-Queens University Press, 1976), 201-209; 366; 381-382.

21. Ibid., 335.

22. Ibid., 220-221.

23. Ibid.

20. James Bater, St. Petersburg: Industrialization and Change (Montreal: McGill-Queens University Press, 1976), 201-209; 366; 381-382.

21. Ibid., 335.

22. Ibid., 220-221.

23. Ibid.

20. James Bater, St. Petersburg: Industrialization and Change (Montreal: McGill-Queens University Press, 1976), 201-209; 366; 381-382.

21. Ibid., 335.

22. Ibid., 220-221.

23. Ibid.

20. James Bater, St. Petersburg: Industrialization and Change (Montreal: McGill-Queens University Press, 1976), 201-209; 366; 381-382.

21. Ibid., 335.

22. Ibid., 220-221.

23. Ibid.

24. Bater, "Legacy of Autocracy."

25. A pattern explored in the context of Moscow in Robert Eugene Johnson, "Peasant Migration and the Russian Working Class: Moscow at the End of the Nineteenth Century," Slavic Review 35, no. 4 (1976):652-664.

26. Bater, St. Petersburg, 361-362.

27. Bater, "Legacy of Autocracy."

28. V. G. Lisovskii, "Istok—drevnerusskoe zodchestvo," Leningradskaia panorama, 1984, no. 8:33-35.

29. Hamilton, Art and Architecture, 270-275.

30. Ibid., 275-283; V. G. Lisovskii, Leningrad: Raiony novostroek (Leningrad: Lenizdat, 1983), 26-27. These plans, in turn, would influence Fomin's work during the early Soviet period, as was the case for his designs and projects on Vasil'evskii Island. Iogansen, Lisovskii, and Nikulina, Arkhitektura Vasil'evskogo ostrova, 12-13; Bartenev, Zodchie i stroiteli Leningrada, 166-169; and Brumfield, Gold in Azure, 336-337.

29. Hamilton, Art and Architecture, 270-275.

30. Ibid., 275-283; V. G. Lisovskii, Leningrad: Raiony novostroek (Leningrad: Lenizdat, 1983), 26-27. These plans, in turn, would influence Fomin's work during the early Soviet period, as was the case for his designs and projects on Vasil'evskii Island. Iogansen, Lisovskii, and Nikulina, Arkhitektura Vasil'evskogo ostrova, 12-13; Bartenev, Zodchie i stroiteli Leningrada, 166-169; and Brumfield, Gold in Azure, 336-337.

31. S. Frederick Starr, "The Revival and Schism of Urban Planning in Twentieth Century Russia," in Michael F. Hamm, ed., The City in Russian History (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1976), 222-242; I. Bartenev, Arkhitektura sotsialisticheskogo Leningrada (Leningrad: Obshchestvo "Znanie"—Leningradskaia organizatsiia, 1953), 5-10.

32. For an account of the material and social conditions of daily life in Moscow on the eve of World War I, see Diane Koenker, Moscow Workers and the 1917 Revolution (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1981).

33. The differing responses of Moscow and Petrograd/Leningrad architects to the demands of socialist construction during this period are discussed in S. Frederick Starr, "Visionary Town Planning during the Cultural Revolution," in Sheila Fitzpatrick, ed., Cultural Revolution in Russia, 1928-1931 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1978), 207-240.

34. For discussion of planning and construction efforts during this period, see B. R. Rubanenko, "Razvitie goroda s 1917 po 1935 god," in Leningrad, Arkhitekturno-planirovochnoe upravlenie, Leningrad (Leningrad and Moscow: Iskusstvo, 1943), 45-64; V. L. Ruzhzhe, "Gradostroitel'nye problemy v krasnom Petrograde," Stroitel'stvo i arkhitektura Leningrada, 1967, no. 1:10-13; and V. A. Kamenskii, "Gradostroitel'noe razvitie sotsialisticheskogo Leningrada," ibid., 1967, no. 11:8-20.

35. For a discussion of the impact of the Kaganovich address on Soviet urban development, see James Bater, The Soviet City (London: Edward Arnold, 1980), 26-27; and Z. V. Kornil'eva, "Deiatel'nost' Leningradskoi organizatsii po osuchestvleniu general'nogo plana razvitiia goroda v semiletki (1959-1966 gg.)" (Avtoreferat dissertatsii na soiskanie uchenoi stepeni kandidata istoricheskikh nauk, Leningradskii gosudarstvennyi universitet, 1969), 4-5.

36. B. Michael Frolic, "Moscow: The Socialist Alternative," in H. Wentworth Eldredge, ed., World Capitals: Toward Guided Urbanization (Garden City, N.Y.: Anchor Press/Doubleday, 1975), 295-339 [309-315]; N. N. Ullas, "Novyi general'nyi razvitiia Moskvy," Gorodskoe khoziaistvo Moskvy, 1971, no. 8:3-25 [3-4].

37. V. A. Kamenskii and A. I. Naumov, Leningrad: Gradostroitel'nye problemy razvitiia (Leningrad: Stroiizdat—Leningradskoe otdelenie, 1977), 126-129; "Nashy zadachi," Arkhitektura Leningrada, 1936, no. 1:6-13; L. A. Il'in, "Plan razvitiia Leningrada i ego arkhitektura," ibid., 18-33; Lisovskii, Leningrad, 34-36.

38. Khomutetskii, Peterburg-Leningrad, 220; O. V. Shishkin, "Na glavnom meridiane," Leningradskaia panorama, 1984, no. 6:5-8; M. N. Mikishat'ev, "Doma sovetov: Obraznye resheniia," ibid., 1986, no. 11:16-18; M. E. Ivin, Prospekt im I. V. Stalina (Leningrad: Gosizdat. Literatury po stroitel'stva arkhitektury, 1954); Leningrad: Vidy goroda (Moscow: Gosizdat. Izobrazitel'nogo iskusstva, 1954), 81-99; I. Khamarev, Za Moskovskoi zastavoi (Leningrad: Lenizdat, 1948), 126-127.

39. G. G. Kel'kh, Pamiatniki sovetskoi arkhitektury v Leningrade: Problemy restavratsii i okhrany (Leningrad: Obshchestvo "Znanie" RSFSR—Leningradskaia organizatsiia, 1982).

40. M. F. Fridman, "Proekty Doma sovetov v Leningrade," Arkhitektura Leningrada, 1936, no. 2:8-25; N. A. Trotskii, "Dom sovetov v Leningrade," ibid., 1937, no. 2:8-19; L. V. Rudnev, "Nekotorye zamecheniia ob arkhitekture Dom Sovetov," ibid., 20-33; F. N. Pashchenko, "Stroitel'stvo zdanii administrativnogo naznacheniia v Leningrade," ibid., 1939, no. 6:9-16; L. Iu. Gal'pern, "Proekty obshchegorodskogo tsentra v Leningrade,'' ibid., 1940, no. 2:7-15; "Novaia sistema obshchegorodskogo, tsentra Leningrada," 1941, no. 1:2-7.

41. Khomutetskii, Peterburg-Leningrad, 216; Lisovskii, Leningrad, 142-

148; V. A. Vitman et al., Arkhitektura Leningrada (Leningrad: Gosizdat. lit. po stroi i arkh., 1953), 228.

42. N. V. Baranov, Siluety blokady: Zapiski glavnogo arkhitektura goroda (Leningrad: Lenizdat, 1982).

43. Leningrad: Entsiklopedicheskii spravochnik (Moscow and Leningrad: Bol'shaia Sovetskaia entsiklopediia, 1957), 431; Gosudarstvennyi nauchno-issledovatel'skii muzei arkhitektury im. A. V. Shchuseva, N. V. Baranov: Katalog vystavki osnovnykh tvorcheskikh rabot k 70-letiiu so dnia rozhdeniia i 50-letiia tvorcheskoi deiatel'nosti (Moscow, 1979).

44. Leningrad: Entsiklopedicheskii spravochnik, 527-528.

45. Baranov, Siluety blokady, 88.

46. Ibid.

47. Ibid., 86-90; E. P. Busyreva, "Grazhdanskii podvig zodchego," Leningradskaia panorama 1987, no. 12:22-25.

45. Baranov, Siluety blokady, 88.

46. Ibid.

47. Ibid., 86-90; E. P. Busyreva, "Grazhdanskii podvig zodchego," Leningradskaia panorama 1987, no. 12:22-25.

45. Baranov, Siluety blokady, 88.

46. Ibid.

47. Ibid., 86-90; E. P. Busyreva, "Grazhdanskii podvig zodchego," Leningradskaia panorama 1987, no. 12:22-25.

48. N.V. Baranov, "General'nyi plan razvitiia Leningrada," in Leningrad, Arkhitekturno-planirovochnoe upravlenie, Leningrad, 65-84; Kamenskii and Naumov, Leningrad, 126-139; "O general'nom plane goroda Leningrada," Arkhitektura Leningrada, 1939, no. 3:2; N. V. Morozov, "Sotsialisticheskii Leningrad," ibid., 3-6.

49. Baranov, "General'nyi plan razvitiia Leningrada," 73-81.

50. Khomutetskii, Peterburg-Leningrad, 216; Kamenskii and Naumov, Leningrad, 126-139; Ivin, Prospekt im I. V. Stalina; V. I. Piliavskii, Arkhitektura Leningrada (Leningrad and Moscow: Gosizdat. lit. po stroi i arkh., 1953), 14; A. N. Kosygin, "Novoe stroitel'stvo v gorode Lenina," Arkhitektura Leningrada, 1938, no. 5:5-7; M. V. Morozov and N. V. Baranov, "Stroitel'stvo Leningrada v 1939 goda," ibid., 1939, no. 1:17-18; "Mezhdunarodnyi prospekt/ Moskovskoe shosse," ibid., 1938, no. 1:14-26; I. I. Fomin, "Ansambl' Moskovskogo shosse," ibid., 1938, no. 2:39-44; V. V. Popov, ''Praktika zastroiki Moskovskogo shosse," ibid., 1938, no. 4:4-6; S. V. Vasil'kovskii, B. R. Rubanenko, and G. A. Simonov, "Potochno-skorotnoe stroitel'stvo na Moskovskom shosse," ibid., 1940, no. 3:25-29; V. I. Kozlov, ed., Ocherki istorii Leningradskoi organizatsii KPSS, vol. 3, 1945-1985 (Leningrad: Lenizdat, 1985), p. 65.

51. M. V. Posokhin et al., Sovetskaia arkhitektura za 50 let (Moscow: Izdat. lit. po stroitel'stvu, 1968), 79; A. K. Baratchev et al., eds., Ezhegodnik Leningradskogo otdeleniia soiuza sovetskikh arkhitekturov, no. 4 (Leningrad: Gosizdat lit. po stroi i arkh., 1955).

52. Leon Goure, The Siege of Leningrad: August, 1941-January, 1944 (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1964), 4-5.

53. For accounts of this period, see ibid.; D. V. Pavlov, Leningrad 1941: The Blockade, trans. John C. Adams (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965); Harrison E. Salisbury, The 900 Days: The Siege of Leningrad (New York: Harper & Row, 1969); D. Trakhtenberg, Podvig Leningrada (Leningrad: Khudozhnik RSFSR, 1966); E. Katerli and F. Samoilov, Gorod v kotorom my zhivem (Leningrad: Leningradskoe gazetno-zhurnal'noe i knizhnoe izdatel'stvo, 1945), 105-128; Alexander Werth, Leningrad (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1944); and Richard Bidlack, "Workers at War: Factory Workers and Labor Policy in the Siege of Leningrad" (Ph.D. dissertation, Indiana University, 1987).

54. Official data identify a low population of 639,000 in March 1943, as well as 554,000 evacuees and 632,253 civilian deaths. These figures account

for approximately 1.8 million persons in a prewar population of 3.2 million (Goure, Siege of Leningrad, 239; Salisbury, The 900 Days, 513-518).

55. M. I. Likhomanov, L. T. Pozina, and E. I. Finogenov, Partiinoe rukovodstvo evakuatsii v pervyi period Velikoi otechestvennoi voiny, 1941-1942 gg. (Leningrad: Izdatel'stvo Leningradskogo universiteta, 1985); Bidlack, "Workers ar War."

56. Richard Bidlack, "Worker Mobilization during the Siege of Leningrad" (Paper delivered at the annual meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Slavic Studies, New Orleans, November 22, 1986), 1.

57. L. D. Leonov and B. K. Peiro, Leningrad—gorod geroi (Leningrad: Obshchestvo Znanie, 1957), 28-30; Salisbury, The 900 Days, 407-422, 523-528; Goure, Siege of Leningrad, 150-153, 217-218, 239; V. A. Ezhov, Rabochii klass—Vedushchaia sila vosstanovleniia Leningrada 1943-1950 gg. (Leningrad: Izdatel'stvo Leningradskogo universiteta, 1982), 19; and Bidlack, "Workers at War."