1. See the significant headlines of some articles published in France in 1969. For example, C. Morange, "Y a-t-il des gorilles progressistes?" La Nouvelle Critique (April 1969), and P. Nourry, "Pérou: des militaires pas comme les autres," Croissance des jeunes nations (October 1969). break

2. See chapter 4.

3. See Jacques Lambert, Ameriaue latine. Structures sociales et institutions politiques (Pa ris, 1963), pp. 291-293.

4. On this military progressivism see the case studies published in the collective work, La Politique de Mars. Les processus politiaues au sein des partis militaires, ed . and intro. A. Rouquie (Paris, 1981), as well as A. Rouquie, "Le camarade et le commandant, reformisme militaire et legitimite institudonnelle," Revue francaise de science politique (Ju ne 1979).

5. See the quotations published by Manuel Urriza in his book, Peru: cuando los militares se van (Caracas, 1978), pp. 165-166.

6. According to the Estatuto del gobierno revolucionario, which became Decree-Law 17.063.

7. "Manifesto del gobierno revolucionario," El Comercio (Lima), 4 October 1968.

8. See especially J. Velasco Alvarado in La Voz de la revolución, vol. 2 (Lima, 1971), pp. 10-12.

9. See Plan Inca. Plan del gobierno revolucionario de la fuerza armada (Lima, n.d.), pp. 46-47.

10. In a "Message to the Nation," published in La Político del gobierno revolucionario (Lima) (July 1973), pp. 17-18.

11. Castro mentioned the Peruvian military regime in favorable terms for the first time on 14 July 1969, in a speech to thirty thousand sugar workers at the beginning of the ten-million-ton sugar harvest.

12. See, among others, Bourricaud, "Perú: ¿Los militares porqu>CH:233>y para qué?" Aportes (Paris) (April 1970), and Nelson Rimensnyder, "Los militares y la modernización del Perú," Estudios internacionales (Santiago de Chile) (April-June 1970), p. 91.

13. Because of the application of an amendment to the Foreign Military Sales Act that provided for the suspension of military sales to Peru, the government responded by expelling the North American military mission and refusing a visit by Nelson Rockefeller (May 1969).

14. According to the 1961 census, 83.2 percent of the rural properties were less than 5 hectares in size, and comprised 7 percent of the cultivated land, while. 4 percent of the agricultural units were over 500 hectares and comprised 75.6 percent of the land in use. See E. Flores, "La reforma agraria en el Perú," Trimestre económico (July-September 1970), and Hernando Aguirre Gamio, "El proceso de la reforma agraria en el Perú," Mundo nuevo (Buenos Aires, Paris) (January 1970). break

15. "Presidential Message to the Nation," Lima, 24 June 1969, published in Estudios internacionales (Santiago de Chile) (October-December, 1969):395.

16. "Decreto-Ley no., 17, 716, article 3 (ley de reforma agraria)" in Nueva Legislación sobre reforma agraria (Lima, 1970).

17. A first regulation issued in 1972 aimed at limiting the influence of the APRA-dominated unions excluded from the elections to the administrative bodies of the cooperatives all the former political party and union officers.

18. Ley de reforma agraria, article 39.

19. "Message to the Nation," p. 387.

20. See Jean Piel, "Réforme, problèmes et conflits agraires au Pérou. La situation en 1975," in Problèms d'Amérique latine, no. 36 (May 1975):75, and Ute Schirmer, "Reforma agraria y cooperativismo en el Perú," Revista mexicana de sociología (July-September 1977): 799-847.

21. "Message to the Nation," p. 388.

22. Ley de reforma agraria, Article 181. That possibility was not utilized by those who held the agrarian reform bonds, it is true.

23. The marketing of iron ore was transferred to the state in 1971, the export of fishmeal was also taken over in 1970. In 1973, the production of fishmeal was nationalized. It is true that the fishmeal companies were in a very difficult financial situation because of the drop in prices and the reduction in marine life. Fishmeal, in which Peru ranks first in the world in exports, constituted its most important export.

24. See José Martínez, Una nueva etapa en el proceso revolucionario. La clase obrera ante la ley de industrias (Informe presentado al comité central del partido comunista peruano ) (Lima, 29 and 30 August 1970), p. 24.

25. The Financial Development Corporation, created in 1971 to provide financing to state enterprises and to the social sector (the future enterprises to be created by the workers themselves).

26. The major idea of the regime in its attempt to distinguish itself from capitalism and communism, which was to provide it with its political identity, was the creation of a self-managed area of Social Property. A law was finally issued (Decree-Law 20,558) in April 1974, but its application was soon suspended as a result of the change of government that took place in 1975. It called for a special property sector made up of enterprises created by the workers. The opposition of the military did not permit that form continue

of property to develop. See Carlos Franco, Perú Participación popular (Lima, 1979), pp. 122-126.

27. The Peruvian government initiated campaigns to attract capital through its embassies, governmental missions, and the international press (See New York Times, 28 September 1969). The foreign investment was to be carried out on the basis of a contract of limited duration with the state.

28. The second phase of the revolution after the overthrow of General Velasco Alvarado in 1975 led by General Morales Bermudez took steps to cut back or limit the impact of the reforms of the earlier regime before handing back the government to the civilians in 1980.

29. In the opinion of General Velasco Alvarado when he was interviewed by Le Monde, 3 February 1973. See the protest of the employers' organization against the "collectivist" orientation of the government, Expreso (Li ma), 12 August 1970.

30. See Lowenthal, "Peru's Revolutionary Government of the Armed Forces. Background and Context," in Catherine McArdle Kelleher, ed., Political-Military Systems: Comparative Perspectives (Beverly Hills, Calif., 1974), p. 148.

31. This is the title of a book by Albert Meister on what he calls "the Peruvian experiment in the management of underdevelopment," (Toulouse, 1981).

32. These words were often used by the minister of mines. General Fernández Maldonado, one of the "initiators" of the process.

33. See Villanueva,¿ ^Nueva Mentalidad ? Villanueva is a former commander in the Peruvian army who labored in the ranks of the APRA.

34. This is the theory of Einaudi and Stepan in their study, Latin American Institutional Development .

35. Put forward by Henry Pease García in El Ocaso del poder olig>CH:225>rquico (Lima, 1977).

36. See, for a sophisticated interpretation along these lines, the study by George E. Philip, The Rise and Fall of the Peruvian Military Radicals (London, 1978), p. 40.

37. This is the opinion of Villanueva, ¿ Nueva Mentalidad ? and of Einaudi and Stepan, Latin American . See also Luis Valdez, "Antecedentes de la nueva orientación de las fuerzas armadas en el Perú," Aportes (Paris) (January 1971):175-178.

38. Such as General Tantaleáan or even Velasco Alvarado. On the influence of the writings of the founder of the APRA, Haya de la Torre, see Franco, Perú, Participación popular, p. 18. break

39. As Urriza correctly notes in his book, Perú, pp. 90-92.

40. Interview in Croissance des jeunes nations, 1 February 1974, p. 11. See also Edgar Mercado Jarrín, "La seguridad integral en el proceso peruano," Estrategia (Buenos Aires) (March 1973):74-84.

41. See "Acciún nacionalista revoludonaria. Programa de principios," El Diario (La Paz), 31 August 1969, and "Proclamaron a Ovando en Quillacollo," El Diario, 13 September 1969.

42. Domitila Barrios de Chungara, Domitila. Si on me donne la parole. La vie d'une femme de la mine bolivienne, interview by Moema Viezzer (Paris, 1980), p. 177.

43. René Zavaleta Mercado, "Bolivia, de la Asamblea popular al combate de agosto," in James Petras et al., América latina. Economía y Política (Buenos Aires, 1972).

44. Augusto Céspedes, "Bolivia, un Vietnam simbúlico y barato," Marcha (Mo ntevideo), 1 October 1971.

45. This gave him real popularity after the anti-American demonstrations in 1964. See Larry Piffim, "The Challenge in Panama," Current History (Ja nuary 1966): 6.

46. Speech by Torrijos, 9 August 1971, quoted by Gilhodes in his book, Paysans de Panama .

47. "Panama: Confrontation," Latin America Weekly Report (London), 14 April 1972.

48. See Gilhodes, Paysans de Panama, pp. 196-200.

49. According to Valeurs actuelles, "Les coffres de Panama," 21 June 1971.

50. "Panama: Another Round," Latin America Weekly Report, 30 November 1973. The opposition accused the governor of preparing a celebration of the twentieth anniversary of the attack by Fidel Castro on the Moncada Barracks.

51. The role of the United States in the coup and counter coup of Torrijos remains unclear. Nevertheless, the support by all the pro-American elements of the removal of the leader of the revolution was evident. We should also note that a number of claims have been made that attribute the plane acident that took Torrijos's life to sabotage by the American intelligence services. However, no material proof has yet been produced.

52. According to article 277 of the transitional provisions of 1972, quoted in Gilhodes, Paysans de Panama, p. 75.

53. See "Panama After Torrijos," Newsweek, 17 August 1981.

54. According to the text entitled, Filosofía y Plan de acción del gobierno revolucionario nacionalista (Quito, 1972).

55. See César Verduga, "El proceso económico ecuatoriano contem- soft

por,CH:225>neo (an,CH:225>lisis del período 1975-1977)," in G. Drekonja et al., eds., Ecuador hoy (Bogotá, 1978), pp. 61-64.

56. According to Lineamientos fundamentales del plan integral de transformaci,ón y desarrollo (Quito, 1972), quoted by Emmanuel Fauroux in his article: "Equateur: les lendemains d'une réforme agraire," Problèmes d'Amérique latine, no. 56, p. 106.

57. Jaime Galarza Zavala, "Ecuador, el oro y la pobreza," in Ecuador hoy, p. 37.

58. In the words of Stephen Llaidman in the Washington Post, 9 December 1973 ("Peru's Junta Tries to Forge a New Society by Decree").

59. "Velasco habla para la revista Visão," in La Autonomía revolucionaria (Lima) (April-May 1974):6-7.

60. See K. J. Middlebrook and D. Scott Palmer, Military Government and Political Development: Lessons from Perú (Beverly Hills, Calif., 1975), p. 16, and Hugo Neira, Perú: informe urgente (El papel de las fuerzas armadas en el proceso revolucionario) (Madrid, 1971).

61. This program, published by the radical military in 1974, is supposed to have been developed in 1968 and therefore to have had the support of the entire armed forces.

62. See Franco, Perú Partóipación popular, p. 47.

63. Middlebrook and Palmer, Military Government, p. 21.

64. See Richard W. Patch, "Peasantry and National Revolution, Bolivia," in K. H. Silvert, Expectant Peoples (Nacionalism and Development) (New York, 1961), pp. 95-126. Carlos Montenegro, who inspired Bolivian nationalism, wrote in a classic book in 1943: "It was in the Chaco that Bolivian national feeling which had disappeared for half a century was reawakened." Nationalismo y Coloniaje (Buenos Aires, 1967), p. 221.

65. This was the case with General Juan José Torres who told a French journalist to justify his actions: "In the 1930's we had a conflict with Paraguay which was much more important than the guerrillas, a fratricidal war waged at the instigation of imperialist petroleum interests. My father was killed. He died for the defense of the nation." Le Monde, 22 October 1970.

66. Speech of General Ovando, 17 October 1969. Text published in "Bolivia: ¿ La segunda revolutión nacional?" Cuadernos de Marcha (Montevideo) (October 1969):62.

67. See Mario Monteforte Toledo, Centroamérica. Subdesarrollo y dependencia, vol. 2 (México, 1972), p. 128. Also, El Salvador, Ministerio de Defensa, Principios y Objetivos del gobierno revolucionario (San Salvador, 1955) (see especially no. 2).

68. Charles W. Anderson, "El Salvador, the Army as Reformer," in continue

Martin C. Needler, Political Systems of Latin America (New York, 1970), pp. 70-77.

69. W. W. Rostow, The Stages of Economic Growth (New York, 1966).

70. "Changing Role of U.S. Interview with William P. Rogers, Secretary of State," US News and World Report, 26 January 1970.

71. El Espectador (Bogotá) 27 September 1968.

72. See the book by Louis Mercier-Vega, La Révolution par l'Etat (Une nouvelle classe dirigeante en Amérique latine ) (Paris, 1978).