1. Butow, Japan's Decision , 153, fn. 37, 175- 209; Arisue, Shusen hishi , 39-46. Sigal, Fighting to a Finish , is a detailed account of Japan's decision to surrender based in large part on oral statements by Japanese leaders after the war. In Japanese practice the emperor did not "decide" policies; he approved decisions of his ministers, and in 1945 he expressed a "desire" or gave ''advice" that the Allied terms be accepted, which the cabinet then adopted as its decision.

2. DOS, Occupation , 56-58; Butow, Japan's Decision , 207-208.

3. DOS, Occupation , 59-60.

4. Butow, Japan's Decision , 248.

5. "Voice of the crane" means a statement by the emperor.

6. Sumimoto, Senryo hiroku , vol. 1, 15-19; Asahi shimbun , Feb. 14. 1964, 8; FRUS, I945 , vol. 6, 702-708. See Pacific War Research Society (comp.), Japan's Longest Day , for a description of the events of August 14, 1945, in Tokyo.

7. KJ , vol. 4, 166-168.

8. Kosaka, One Hundred Million Japanese , 22-23; Eto (ed.), Senryo shir-oku , vol. 1, 70-97, 103; FRUS, 1945 , vol. 6, 647-650; Mashbir, I Was an American Spy , 278-299; Sumimoto, Senryo hiroku , vol. 1, 2-14.

9. Eto (ed.), Senryo shiroku , vol. 1, 107; Morison, Victory , 359.

10. Arisue, Shusen hishi , 76-79, 82; "Ichiban nori ga mita mono" (What the first plane saw), Shukan shincho , Aug. 24, 1968, 46.

11. Whitney, MacArthur's Rendezvous , 214; Willoughby (ed.), The Reports of General MacArthur , vol. 1, suppl. 31; MacArthur, Reminiscences , 270, fn.

12. Willoughby (ed.), The Reports of General MacArthur , vol. 1, 29.

13. Sodei, Makkasa no nisen nichi , 76.

14. Kawai, Japan's American Interlude , 12-13. This remains a classic study of the U.S. occupation of Japan.

15. PRJ , 740. The two volumes of PRJ are consecutively numbered.

16. Amakawa, "Senryo seisaku," 215-218; Butow, Japan's Decision , 198; Eto (ed.), Senryo shiroku , vol. 1, 300-331; Matsumoto and Ando, "Daitoa senso," vol. 25, 238-239. Amakawa's "Senryo seisaku" is a careful study of official Japanese reactions and plans in the early occupation period.

17. Morison, Victory , 362-368. See also James, The Years of MacArthur , vol. 2, 781-797; Kase, Journey to the "Missouri ." James's three-volume life of MacArthur is thorough and scholarly. For an offbeat study of MacArthur, see Schaller, Douglas MacArthur .

18. James, The Years of MacArthur , vol. 2, 785.

19. Shigemitsu, Japan and Her Destiny , 372; Sumimoto, Senryo biroku , vol. 1, 32-36. One reason advanced at the time to explain the willingness of Japanese leaders, especially military men, to go along with the surrender was the view that the United States and the Soviet Union would soon have a confrontation and Japan could "find a chance to regain its feet" (Hata, "The Postwar Period," 13-14).

20. PRJ , 736.

21. NYT , Sept. 3, 1945, 3; Murphy, Diplomat , 240-242. The crudely corrected copy of the Japanese-language text of the surrender instrument can be seen in the archives of the Foreign Office in Tokyo. The signing of the instrument of surrender by the Allied powers and Japan, according to the prevailing Japanese legal interpretation, made the surrender in 1945 one of a contractual nature, not an unconditional one (Taoka, "Sengo Nihon," English translation in author's possession).

22. PRJ , 737; DOS, Occupation , 65.

23. Statistics on Japanese casualties and damage vary widely. An authoritative study, made by the ESB and dated April 7, 1949, estimated Japan's war dead at 1,854,000 (1,555,000 military and 299,000 civilians). This report was summarized in POLAD desp. 249, "Transmission of Report on Losses Sustained by Japan as Result of the Pacific War," Apr. 22, 1949, 2, diplomatic file S 500, NRAS, RG 84, Box 2243. See also Dower, War Without Mercy , 297-298, 300.

     U.S. combat deaths in the Pacific War were about 100,000, and about 292,000 troops were recorded as wounded or missing. The total cost of the Pacific War to the United States in money has been estimated at about $100 billion (Hadley, Antitrust , 134).

24. Tsuru, Essays on Japanese Economic Development , 160; Patrick, "The Phoenix Risen."

25. DOS, Occupation , 51.

26. Ibid., 52-53; Bohlen, Witness to History , 197-198; FRUS, 1945 , vol. 6, 670.

27. Uchino, Japan's Postwar Economy , 17-18.

28. FRUS, Conference of Berlin, 1945 , vol. 1,908. One hundred fifty thousand Okinawan Japanese, or one-third of the island's population, were killed in the spring of 1945 (Dower, War Without Mercy , 298).

29. Shinobu, Sengo Nihon seijishi , vol. 1, 119-130.

30. Sodei, Senryo , 155-156.