1 The Two Faces of Humanism Stoicism and Augustinianism in Renaissance Thought
1. For example, the Grande Antologia Filosofica , though it includes a section on Renaissance Epicureanism, gives no special treatment to either Stoicism or Augustinianism; and Eugenio Garin's distinguished L'umanesimo italiano:filosofia e vita civile nel rinascimento (Bari, 1952) has much on Platonism but little directly on Stoicism or Augustinianism. On the other hand, both receive substantial recognition in Charles Trinkaus, In Our Image and Likeness: Humanity and Divinity in Italian Humanist Thought (Chicago, 1970), to which I am heavily indebted. The chief difference between his treatment of the subject and my own is one of emphasis; Trinkaus seems to me primarily concerned with the humanist effort to harmonize Stoic and Augustinian impulses (cf I, xx-xxi).
2. For the ambiguous connections between Stoicism and rhetoric there is much in George Kennedy, The Art of Rhetoric in the Roman World, 300 B.C.-A.D. 300 (Princeton, 1972); see also Jerrold E. Seigel, Rhetoric and Philosophy in Renaissance Humanism: Ciceronian Elements in Early Quattrocento Thought and Their Historical Setting (Princeton, 1968), esp. ch. 1, and Nancy S. Struever, The Language of History in the Renaissance: Rhetoric and Historical Consciousness in Florentine Humanism (Princeton, 1970), esp. ch. 1. For the rhetorical element in Augustine, I have had fundamental guidance from Peter Brown, Augustine of Hippo: A Biography (Berkeley, 1967); see also Marcia Colish, The Mirror of Language: A Study in the Medieval Theory of Knowledge (New Haven, 1968). Henri Irénée Marrou, Saint Augustin et la fin de la culture antique , 4th ed. (Paris, 1958), also remains basic. For the importance of Cicero and Stoicism in Augustine, see also Maurice Testard, Saint Augustin et Cicéron: Cicéron dans la formation et dans l'æuvre de Saint Augustin (Paris, 1958).
3. Adam, Sur le problème religieux dans la première moitié du XVII e siècle (Oxford, 1959); Trinkaus, op. cit.
4. On this problem cf. Raymond Klibansky, The Continuity of the Platonic Tradition in the Middle Ages (London, 1939), 36. For one recent effort to sort out this mixture, see Andreas Graeser, Plotinus and the Stoics: A Preliminary Study (Leiden, 1972), a title whose modesty suggests the difficulty of the problem. Moses Hadas, Hellenistic Culture: Fusion and Diffusion (New York, 1959), is generally useful on the subject, in spite of its tendency to exaggerate Semitic elements in the hellenistic bundle.
5. De civitate dei , XVIII, 51; cf. XVIII, 41.
6. Eugene Teselle, Augustine the Theologian (London, 1970), 347-348.
7. Ep. 143, quoted by Brown, 353. For the general point, in addition to Brown and Teselle, I am much indebted to F. Edward Cranz, "The Development of Augustine's Ideas on Society before the Donatist Controversy," Harvard Theological Review , 47 (1954), 255-316, and R. A. Markus, Saeculum: History and Society in the Theology of St. Augustine (Cambridge, 1970).
8. For this apocryphal correspondence, Epistolae Senecae ad Paulum et Pauli ad Senecam 'quae vocantur ,' ed. C. W. Barlow (Rome, 1938).
9. For an excellent introduction to the fundamental importance of this issue, see Creation: The Impact of an Idea , ed. Daniel O'Connor and Francis Oakley (New York, 1969).
10. The classic work of Charles Norris Cochrane, Christianity and Classical Culture (Oxford, 1940), is particularly useful on this fundamental difference.
11. Damasus Trapp, "Augustinian Theology of the 14th Century: Notes on Editions, Marginalia, Opinions, and Book Lore," Augustiniana , VI (1956), 189.
12. M. D. Chenu, Toward Understanding St. Thomas , tr. Albert M. Landry and Dominic Hughes (Chicago, 1964), 43, 54, 142 (I cite the English edition rather than the French original, Introduction à l'étude de Saint Thomas d'Aquin [Paris, 1950], because of its richer documentation); Henri-Irénée Marrou, Saint Augustin et l'augustinisme (Paris, 1955), 161-162.
13. Canto X.
14. Canto XXXII.
15. He cites the Confessions from time to time in the Convivio but appears to regard it as no more than a conventional work of moral guidance.
16. This has been noted by Nicola Abbagnano, "Italian Renaissance Humanism," Cahiers d'histoire mondiale , XI (1963), 269; cf. Charles B. Schmitt, Cicero Scepticus: A Study of the Influence of the Academica in the Renaissance (The Hague, 1972), 33-34, on the importance (and neglect by modern scholars) of Cicero for the Middle Ages. Hans Baron, "Cicero and the Roman Civic Spirit in the Middle Ages and the Early Renaissance," John Rylands Library Bulletin , XXII (1938), 72-97, has useful remarks on the medieval, as contrasted with the Renaissance, image of Cicero.
17. Quoted by John Mundy, Europe in the High Middle Ages, 1150-1309 (London, 1973), 478, noting the prominence of Seneca in Bacon's Opus maius .
18. Cf the passages on fortune in the translation of Charles Dahlberg (Princeton, 1971), 87, 102-104, 121-122.
19. For his use of the Senecan notion of seeds of virtue and knowledge, see also the passages listed by Maryanne C. Horowitz, "Pierre Charron's View of the Source of Wisdom," Journal of the History of Philosophy , IX (1971), 454 n. 44. Professor Horowitz is working on a general study of the career of Stoicism from antiquity to the later Renaissance.
20. Esp. in the Convivio ; cf Inferno, IV, 141, where Cicero appears in the company of "Seneca morale."
21. De natura deorum , ed. H. Rackham (Cambridge, Mass., and London, 1957), 257-259. For medieval use of the image, cf. R. W. Southern, Medieval Humanism and Other Studies (New York, 1970), 37-41.
22. Cf., for example, Marsilius of Padua, Defensor pacis , I, v, 10.
23. See, for example, Romance of the Rose , 110, and the Knight's and Monk's tales in Chaucer's Canterbury Tales .
24. Cf. Romance of the Rose , 308-312, and the passages collected in Mundy, 265-269. Johan Huizinga, Waning of the Middle Ages , tr. F. Hopman (New York, 1959), 64-67, directs attention to the importance of this motif in medieval literature.
25. Chenu, 47-48, 52 nn. 3 and 4, 152.
26. Trapp, 150-151, 181, describing Gregory as the "first Augustinian of Augustine" to distinguish him from the more equivocal Augustine of the Middle Ages.
27. David Curtis Steinmetz, Misericordia Dei: The Theology of Johannes von Staupitz in Its Late Medieval Setting , Studies in Medieval and Reformation Thought, IV (Leiden, 1968), 155.
28. The point is made by Trinkaus, I, 307.
29. De vero falsoque bono , ed. Maristella de Panizza Lorch (Bari, 1970), 18. See the discussion of this discourse in Trinkaus, I, 110-113.
30. Quoted in Carlos G. Noreña, Juan Luis Vives (The Hague, 1970), 216.
31. Institutes , I, v, 1. For a balanced view of Calvin's Stoicism, which is sometimes exaggerated, see Charles Partee, "Calvin and Determinism," Christian Scholar's Review V (1975-76), 123-128. I will make no distinction in these pages between men of humanist backgrounds such as Zwingli, Melanchthon, and Calvin, who became Protestants, and other humanists. However conventional, such a distinction seems to me to rest on assumptions that cannot be justified in the light of recent scholarship. This is an obvious inference from Kristeller's fundamental contributions to our understanding of humanism, and the fact that we have been so slow to draw it is perhaps chiefly attributable to the overspecialization that artificially separates students of the Renaissance from those of the Reformation.
32. Quoted by Horowitz, 453, from De la sagesse ; Charron cites Seneca.
33. "Apologie de Raimond Sebond," Essaies , ed. Maurice Rat (Paris, 1958), II, 140-141. I follow here the translation of E. J. Trechman (Oxford, 1935).
34. Quoted by Noreña, 201-202.
35. See the passage from De fato in Trinkaus, II, 547; for Calvin, Institutes , I, v, 3.
36. Calvin's Commentary on Seneca's De clementia , ed. Ford Lewis Battles and André Malan Hugo (Leiden, 1969), 103 n. 39, citing Contre de l'astrologie judiciaire (1549).
37. De liberorum educatione , tr. William Harrison Woodward, in Vittorino da Feltre and Other Humanist Educators (New York, 1970), 140.
38. Secretum , 460. My references to this work are to the edition in Francesco Petrarca, Opere , ed. Giovanni Ponte (Milan, 1968), but I have generally followed the translation by William H. Draper (London, 1911). For the confrontation between Stoicism and Augustinianism in Petrarch, see Klaus Heitmann, Fortuna und Virtus: eine Studie zu Petrarcas Lebensweisheit (Cologne, 1958); and for his Augustinianism, Pietro Paolo Gerosa, L'umanesimo agostiniano del Petrarca (Turin, 1927).
39. See Trinkaus, II, 544, for a passage from De fato in which Pomponazzi expresses his disagreement with the more Augustinian notion of the will as mistress of the intellect.
40. Commentary on Genesis , 1:26. I quote in the translation of John King (Edinburgh, 1847).
41. Institutes , I, xv, 7.
42. Epistolae familiares , XI, 1 and XXI, 15, in Le famigliari , ed. Vittorio Rossi (Florence, 1937), II, 23, IV, 94; I use the translations in David Thompson, Petrarch: An Anthology (New York, 1971). Cf. Augustinus on soul and body in Secretum , 468, 498.
43. Cf. the remarkable passage in Noreña, 202. For Vive's hatred of sex, see also 209-211.
44. De constantia libri duo (Antwerp, 1605), 7.
45. Institutes , I, iii, 1; I, xiv, 21; I, v, 2; II, vi, 1. Egil Grislis, ''Calvin's Use of Cicero in the Institutes I: 1—A Case Study in Theological Method," Archiv für Reformationsgeschichte , LXII (1971), 5-37, shows how closely Calvin follows De natura deorum .
46. Invectiva contra eum qui Maledixit Italiae , in Thompson, 230-231; Secretum , 470; De sui ipsius et multorum ignorantia , tr. Hans Nachod, in The Renaissance Philosophy of Man , ed. Ernst Cassirer et al. (Chicago, 1948), 83-85.
47. Op. cit. , 141-142.
48. Quoted by Charles Partee, "The Revitalization of the Concept of 'Christian Philosophy' in Renaissance Humanism," Christian Scholar's Review , 3 (1974), 364.
49. An Exposition of the Faith , tr. G. W. Bromiley, Zwingli and Bullinger , Library of Christian Classics, XXIV (London, 1953), 275-276.
50. Seigel discusses this, 104-106.
51. Secretum , 494.
52. I libri della famolia , ed. Cecil Grayson, in Opere volgari , I (Bari, 1960), 63; I use the translation of Renée Neu Watkins, The Family in Renaissance Florence (Columbia, S.C., 1969), 75-76.
53. De pueris instituendis , in Desiderius Erasmus concerning the Aim and Method of Education , ed. William H. Woodward (New York, 1964), 192-193.
54. Comm. Seneca , 280-281.
55. Institutes , IV, xiii, 3, 21.
56. Quoted by Horowitz, 452-453.
57. Secretum , 442; Ep. fam. , XXI, 15, in IV, 95.
58. See his argument in De immortalitate animae , tr. William Henry Hay, II, Renaissance Philosophy of Man , 359-377; discussed by Trinkaus, 1, 539-541.
59. Comm. Seneca , 112-113.
60. De ordine docendi et studendi , in Woodward, Vittorino da Feltre , 177.
61. De pueris instituendis , Woodward, 212.
62. Della famiglia , 64.
63. Quoted by Noreña, 207.
64. "De l'yvrongnerie," Essaies , II, 10.
65. De liberorum educatione , Woodward, 157.
66. De vita solitaria , II, ix, tr. Jacob Zeitlin, The Life of Solitude (Urbana, 1924), 250-251.
67. The Book of the Courtier , tr. Charles S. Singleton (New York, 1959), 332.
68. Letter to Servatius Roger, 8 July 1514, Opus Epistolarum Erasmi , ed. P. S. and H. M. Allen (Oxford, 1906-1958), I, 567-569.
69. De constantia , 15-19.
70. The adage Aut fatuum aut regem nasci oportere , in Margaret Mann Phillips, The Adages of Erasmus (Cambridge, 1964), 219; Institutio principis Christiani , tr. Lester K. Born (New York, 1968), 150.
71. Noreña, 213.
72. Gargantua , I, ch. xiv; cf. Erasmus on the philosopher-king in the adage cited above, Phillips, 217, and Castiglione, Courtier , 307.
73. From the dedication of the Institutio principis Christiani , tr. Born, 134.
74. From the adage cited above, Phillips, 219.
75. See the discussion of Salutati's De nobilitate legum et medicinae in Garin, 36-38.
76. "Inns," The Colloquies of Erasmus , tr. Craig R. Thompson (Chicago, 1965), 150.
77. Courtier , 82.
78. Epistolae variae , XLVIII, tr. Thompson.
79. Harry Levin, The Myth of the Golden Age in the Renaissance (Bloomington, 1969), 38.
80. From the concluding reflections in the Arte della guerra , in Machiavelli, The Chief Works and Others , tr. Allan Gilbert (Durham, 1965), II, 726.
81. Quoted by John W. O'Malley, Giles of Viterbo on Church and Reform (Leiden, 1968), 141.
82. From the adage Festina lente , in Phillips, 183-184.
83. Institutio principis Christiani , 211.
84. Quoted by Garin, 37.
85. De constantia , 46.
86. Secretum , 494.
87. Secretum , 514.
88. Ep. fam. , XXIV, 3. I use the translation of M. E. Cosenza, Petrarch's Letters to Classical Authors (Chicago, 1910), 1-4.
89. For Salutati, cf. Seigel, 70-76; for Montaigne, see for example "De la solitude," Essaies , I, esp. 276. For a typical debate on the subject, cf. Alberti, Della famiglia , 179-185.
90. Ep. fam. , XVII, 10, in III, 263; cf. his dismal vision of urban life, with special reference to Avignon, in Secretum , 516-518.
91. Comm. Seneca , 348-349, 52-53; Institutes , I, v, 3.
92. "De l'exercitation," Essaies , II, 50. "Des cannibales," I, 241.
93. Secretum , 472.
94. Oration on the Dignity of Man , tr. Elizabeth Livermore Forbes, in Renaissance Philosophy of Man , 231.
95. Noreña, 207.
96. Quoted by Hans Rupprich, "Willibald Pirckheimer: Beiträge zu einer Wesenserfassung," Schweizer Beiträge zur Allemeinen Geschichte , XV (1957), 85.
97. Comm. Seneca , 84-85, 40-41.
98. De constantia , 6.
99. Secretum , 522, 516.
100. De constantia , 2.
101. Ep. fam. , XIII, 6, in III, 72; Secretum , 442-444, 476-478, 512.
102. Memoirs of a Renaissance Pope: The Commentaries of Pius II , tr. Florence A. Gragg (New York, 1959), 58; De liberorum educatione , 148.
103. Cf. Oration , 250. For the esoteric notion of communication based on this view, see Edgar Wind, Pagan Mysteries in the Renaissance (New Haven, 1958), 24-30.
104. Enchiridion militis Christiani , tr. Ford Lewis Battles, in Advocates of Reform , ed. Matthew Spinka, Library of Christian Classics, XIV (London, 1953), 349 and cf. 350, 357; adage Aut fatuum aut regem nasci oportere , Phillips, 217; letter to Jodocus Jonas, 10 May 1521, Allen, IV, 487-488.
105. Comm. Seneca , 24-25.
106. "De la coustume et de ne changer aisément une loy receüe," Essaies , I, 125.
107. Metaphysicum introductorium , El r , quoted by Augustin Renaudet, Préréforme et l'humanisme à Paris pendant les premiéres guerres d'Italie , rev. ed. (Paris, 1953), 420 n. 2.
108. Secretum , 434.
109. Quoted by Trinkaus, I, 287.
110. Peter Fraenkel, Testimonia Patrum: The Function of the Patristic Argument in the Theology of Philip Melanchthon (Geneva, 1961), 94-96.
111. Cf. Trinkaus, II, 562, 568, 631.
112. James L. Connolly, John Gerson, Reformer and Mystic (Louvain, 1928), 22.
113. In his commentary on De civitate Dei , quoted by Noreña, 135.
114. Quoted by Salvatore I. Camporeale, Lorenzo Valla, umanesimo e teologia (Florence, 1972), 34.
115. From the sermon "Eternal Predestination and its Execution in Time," in Heiko A. Oberman, Forerunners of the Reformation (New York, 1966), 179.
116. Trinkaus, I, 104, notes a similar contrast between the cosmological and rational emphasis of scholastic and the anthropological emphasis of humanist thought, a point with some bearing on the historical significance of Stoicism.
117. Cf. Loci communes theologici , tr. Lowell J. Satre, in Melanchthon and Bucer , ed. Wilhelm Pauck, Library of Christian Classics, XIX (London, 1969), 23-24.
118. Cf Hans Baron, "Franciscan Poverty and Civic Wealth in Humanistic Thought," Speculum , XIII (1938), 21, quoting Bruni's commentary on the Economics of Aristotle.
119. De vero bono , 76.
120. Secretum , 516.
121. Comm. Genesis 3:6.
122. Trinkaus, I, 153, 155.
123. Institutes , I, iii, 3.
124. De ignorantia , 104 and more generally.
125. Secretum , 448-450.
126. As in Institutes , II, v, 15.
127. De ignorantia , 70.
128. Loci communes , 23-24.
129. Quoted by Trinkaus, I, 64.
130. Cf. Giorgio Radetti, "La religione di Lorenzo Valla," Medioevo e rinascimento: studi in onore di Bruno Nardi (Florence, 1955), II, 617-618.
131. Secretum , 462.
132. De vero bono , 91; cf. Trinkaus, I, 115-116, 127, 138.
133. Institutes , III, ii, 8; cf. 33, 36.
134. Article 13, in Calvin: Theological Treatises , ed. J. K. S. Reid, Library of Christian Classics, XXII (London, 1954), 29.
135. Comm. Genesis 4:21.
136. Loci communes , 30; cf. Calvin, Institutes , II, vii, 10.
137. Loci communes , 29, 28.
138. Quoted by Struever, 59; cf. Seigel, 72-73.
139. Quoted by Trinkaus, I, 317-318.
140. Opera , ed. J. Leclerc (Leiden, 1703-1705), IV, 430.
141. Comm. Seneca , 360-361; Institutes , III, viii, 9.
142. The Necessity of Reforming the Church , in Calvin: Theological Treatises , 198; Institutes , II, ii, 4.
143. For Calvin see, among other places, Comm. Genesis 6:3 and Comm. Romans 8:10; for Melanchthon, Loci communes , 31, 37-38.
144. Loci communes , 144.
145. Secretum , 490; cf. Baron, "Franciscan Poverty," 7.
146. Comm. Genesis 1:30.
147. Institutes , III, x, 1.
148. De regno Christi , in Melanchthon and Bucer , 322.
149. Institutes , IV, xii, 27.
150. For Calvin, cf. Comm. Genesis , 1:31; for Melanchthon, see Fraenkel, 293.
151. Quoted by Trinkaus, I, 190-191.
152. Comm. Matthew 22:23, in A Harmony of the Gospels Matthew, Mark and Luke , tr. A. W. Morrison (Grand Rapids, 1972), III, 29.
153. Cf. Melanchthon's formulation, Loci communes , 27.
154. Cf. Trinkaus, I, 55, on Salutati.
155. Secretum , 476.
156. Institutes , I, v, 4; cf. 12.
157. See passages from the Elegantiae , in Camporeale, 7.
158. Cf. passage from De otio in Trinkaus, I, 39; cf. Calvin, Institutes , III, ii, 14.
159. From De transitu Hellenismi ad Christianismum , quoted by Josef Bohatec, Budé und Calvin: Studien zur Gedankenwelt des französischen Frühhumanismus (Graz, 1950), 70.
160. Quoted by Trinkaus, I, 36.
161. Quoted by Seigel, 74.
162. Quoted by Trinkaus, I, 162.
163. Loci communes , 99, 21.
164. Institutes , II, ii, 18; III, ii, 34.
165. Seigel, 152.
166. Quoted by Trinkaus, I, 299.
167. Comm. Seneca , 336-337.
168. De vero bono , 108.
169. Trinkaus, I, 169.
170. For Petrarch see the passage from De otio , quoted by Trinkaus in "The Religious Thought of the Italian Humanists and the Reformers: Anticipation or Autonomy?" The Pursuit of Holiness in Late Medieval and Renaissance Religion: Papers from the University of Michigan Conference , ed. Charles Trinkaus and Heiko A. Oberman, Studies in Medieval and Reformation Thought, X (Leiden, 1974), 352; for Erasmus, Erasmus and the Seamless Coat of Jesus , tr. Raymond Himelick Lafayette, Ind., 1971), 58.
171. De vero bono , 2.
172. Comm. Seneca , 94-95, 32-35.
173. Loci communes , 27-28.
174. Ibid ., 22.
175. Institutes , II, i, 2.
176. Trinkaus, I, 45-46, quoting De otio .
177. Secretum , 466-468; Ep. fam. XXII, 10, in IV, 127.
178. Quoted by Trinkaus, I, 318.
179. In his letter to the Grand Duchess Christina, in Galileo Galilei, Opere , ed. Antonio Favaro (Florence, 1890-1909), V, 307-348.
180. Institutes , II, ii, 13; IV, vi, 10.
181. Contre les Anabaptistes , quoted by Michael Walzer, The Revolution of the Saints: A Study in the Origins of Radical Politics (Cambridge, Mass., 1965), 47.
182. Loci communes , 129.
183. Quoted by Donald J. Wilcox, The Development of Florentine Humanist Historiography in the Fifteenth Century (Cambridge, Mass., 1969), 88-89.
184. Institutes , IV, xx, 8; IV, xx, 15. For Calvin's rejection of universal empire, see also IV, vi, 8.
185. From his commentary on Aristotle's Politics , quoted by Quirinus Breen, Christianity and Humanism: Studies in the History of Ideas (Grand Rapids, 1968), 84.
186. The point is made in connection with Petrarch, I, 147; cf. Seigel, 75, on Salutati.
187. De vero bono , 110.
188. Quoted by Trinkaus, I, 152.
189. Courtier , 7.
190. Institutes , IV, xiii, 11; II, ii, 14.
191. Loci communes , 146.
192. Institutes , IV, iii, 15.
193. Quoted in Breen, 83-84.
194. Comm. Deuteronomy 1:16, quoted by David Little, Religion, Order, and Law: A Study in Pre-Revolutionary England (New York, 1969), 73.
195. Institutes , IV, vii, 15.
196. Quoted by Trinkaus, I, 196.
197. Institutes , IV, iv, 2; IV, xvi, 23. Cf. Comm. Genesis 2:3.
198. Cf J. R. Hale, ''War and Public Opinion in Renaissance Italy," Italian Renaissance Studies: A Tribute to the Late Cecilia M. Ady , ed. E. F. Jacob (London, 1960), 94-122.
199. For Calvin's Renaissance attitude to checks and balances, cf. Institutes , IV, iv, 12; IV, xi, 6.
200. Cf. Trinkaus, I, 161.
201. Institutes , III, viii, 1; IV, ix, 1.
202. Secretum , 514.
203. Quoted by Trinkaus, I, 74-75.
204. Of the Education of Youth , in Zwingli and Bullinger , 113.
205. Institutes , II, ii, 13; Comm. Romans , Epistle; Comm. Seneca , 250-251.
206. This is well brought out by Trinkaus, I, 107-109, 365 n. 21.
207. De ignorantia , 101, 87.
208. Quoted by Seigel, 105.
209. De vero bono , 14-15.
210. Paul Oskar Kristeller, The Philosophy of Marsilio Ficino (New York, 1943), 23.
211. Quoted by D. P. Walker, The Ancient Theology: Studies in Platonism from the Fifteenth to the Eighteenth Century (Ithaca, 1972), 46.
212. André Hugo discusses these matters in his introduction to Calvin's Comm. Seneca , 57-59.
213. Quoted by Luchesius Smits, Saint Augustin dans l'oeuvre de Jean Calvin (Louvain, 1957), I, 42.
214. See Charles L. Stinger, "Humanism and Reform in the Early Quattrocento: The Patristic Scholarship of Ambrogio Traversari (1386-1439)," Stanford Doctoral Dissertation (1971), 116.
215. Noted by Jean Dagens, Bérulle et les origines de la restauration catholique ( 1575-1611 ) (Paris, 1952), 54.
216. Jean-Pierre Massaut, Josse Clichtove, l'humanisme et la réforme du clergé (Liège and Paris, 1968), II, esp. 125-134.
217. Kristeller, Ficino , 15, and "Augustine and the Early Renaissance," Studies in Renaissance Thought and Letters (Rome, 1956), 355-372; O'Malley, 58-61; Trinkaus, II, 465; Walker, passim .
218. Loci communes , 19-20, 22-23.
219. Ibid ., 22; Fraenkel, 19, 302.
220. Comm. Seneca , 24-25.
221. Smits, I, 146, 265-270; Comm. John 1:3.
222. Institutes , IV, xix, 12.
223. Smits, I, 191-194, 145, 252.
224. Quoted by Smits, 1, 63; cf. the passage quoted, p. 23 above.
225. Augustine is given almost twice as much space as any other writer.
226. See Henri-Jean Martin, Livre pouvoirs et société à Paris au XVII e siècle ( 1598-1701 ) (Geneva, 1969), I, 113-116, 494; II, 601, 609.
227. Dagens, 55 and passim . For Augustine in seventeenth-century France see, more generally, Nigel Abercrombie, Saint Augustine and French Classical Thought (Oxford, 1938).
228. The literature on seventeenth-century Augustinianism is massive, but see especially J. Orcibal, Jean Duvergier de Hauranne, abbé de Saint-Cyran, et son temps (Paris, 1947), and Henri de Lubac, Augustinisme et théologie moderne (Paris, 1965).
229. Cf. John Bossy, "The Counter-Reformation and the People of Catholic Europe," Past and Present , 47 (May, 1970), 51-70.
230. Jason Lewis Saunders, Justus Lipsius: The Philosophy of Renaissance Stoicism (New York, 1955), 67. In general, see also Julien Eymard d'Angers, "Le Stoïcisme en France dans la première moitié du XVII e siècle," Études Franciscaines , II (1951), 287-299, 389-410.
231. De constantia , 9.
232. Noted by Abercrombie, 6; Lipsius described Augustine as "nostrorum scriptorum apex" ( Manductio ad Stoicam philosophiam , I, iv).
233. The point is made by Hugo, introduction to Calvin's Comm. Seneca , 36-40.
234. On this point, in addition to Léontine Zanta, La Renaissance du Stoïcisme au XVI e siècle (Paris, 1914), see Anthony Levi, French Moralists: The Theory of the Passions, 1585 to 1649 (Oxford, 1964).