1. Sobranie uzakonenii i rasporiazhenii. 1917-1949 (Moscow, 1920-50) (hereafter cited as SU ), 1923, No. 5, art. 89, prilozhenie 2; A. M. Ginzburg, ed., Chastnyi kapital v narodnom khoziaistve SSSR. Materialy kommissii VSNKh SSSR (Moscow-Leningrad, 1927), pp. 268-269 (information on private shipping); Anthony C. Sutton, Western Technology and Soviet Economic Development 1917 to 1930 (Stanford, 1968), p. 256 (private airline); and Anna Louise Strong, The First Time in History (New York, 1924), pp. 135-137, 140-141, 148-149 (private landlords).

2. Sheila Fitzpatrick, The Commissariat of Enlightenment: Soviet Organization of Education and the Arts Under Lunacharsky, October 1917-1921 (Cambridge, 1970), p. 271.

3. See, for example, Sobranie zakonov i rasporiazhenii raboche-krest'ianskogo pravitel'stva SSSR. 1924-1949 (Moscow, 1925-50) (hereafter cited as SZ ), 1924, No. 20, art. 196.

4. S. A. Fediukin, Bor'ba s burzhuaznoi ideologiei v usloviiakh perekhoda k nepu (Moscow, 1977), pp. 70-71; A. I. Nazarov, Oktiabr'i kniga (Moscow, 1968), p. 249.

5. Fitzpatrick, Commissariat of Enlightenment, p. 263.

6. Zakony o chastnom kapitale. Sbornik zakonov, instruktsii, prikazov i raz"iasnenii, comp. B. S. Mal'tsman and B. E. Ratner (Moscow, 1928), pp. 247-248.

7. Pechat' i revoliutsiia, 1922, kniga 6, pp. 130-131; Fediukin, Bor'ba, p. 73; and Nazarov, Oktiabr', p. 254.

8. Pechat' i revoliutsiia, 1992, kniga 6, pp. 131-132.

9. Nazarov, Oktiabr', p. 255.

10. E. I. Shamurin, Sovetskaia kniga za 15 let v tsifrakh (Moscow, 1933), p. 27.

11. On the literary circles, see Fediukin, bor'ba, p. 75.

12. I. Ia. Trifonov, Klassy i klassovaia bor'ba v SSSR v nachale nepa, Vol. 2, Podgotovka ekonomicheskogo nastupleniia na novuiu burzhuaziiu (Leningrad, 1969), p. 58. See also Ts. M. Kron, Chastnaia torgovlia v SSSR (Moscow, 1926), p. 15.

13. Ekonomicheskoe obozrenie, 1925, October, pp. 115-125; G. A. Dikhtiar, Sovetskaia torgovlia v period postroeniia sotsializma (Moscow, 1961), pp. 207-208.

14. Na novykh putiakh. Itogi novoi ekonomicheskoi politiki 1921-1922 g.g. (Moscow, 1923), vypusk I, p. 186; Iu. S. Kondurushkin, Chastnyi kapital pered sovetskim sudom (Moscow-Leningrad, 1927), pp. 29-30, 105, 114.

15. V. P. Dmitrenko, Torgovaia politika sovetskogo gosudarstva posle perekhoda k NEPu 1921-1924 gg. (Moscow, 1971), p. 185; Torgovo-promyshlennaia gazeta (hereafter cited as TPG ), 1923, No. 1 (January 1), p. 2; and Na novykh putiakh, vypusk I, p. 235.

16. M. M. Zhirmunskii, Chastnyi kapital v tovarooborote (Moscow, 1924), pp. 135-136, 138; Trifonov, Klassy, 2:223.

17. Iugo-Vostok (Rostov-on-the-Don), 1922, No. 1, p. 55; 1923, No. 2-3, p. 81; Ekonomicheskoe stroitel'stvo, 1923, No. 6-7, p. 89; Zhirmunskii, Chastnyi kapital, p. 15; and Kondurushkin, Chastnyi kapital, p. 61.

18. Finansy i promyshlennost', 1922, No. 3-4, p. 68; Kondurushkin, Chastnyi kapital, p. 107. For other examples, see Trifonov, Klassy, 2: 58, 64.

19. I. Mingulin, Puti razvitiia chastnogo kapitala (Moscow-Leningrad, 1927), p. 55; Kondurushkin, Chastnyi kapital, p. 46; and Trifonov, Klassy, 2: 73.

20. See, for example, Promyshlennost' i torgovlia, 1923, No. 2, pp. 3-4; TPG, 1922, No. 176 (October 10), p. 1; 1922, No. 191 (October 27), p. 3; 1922, No. 192 (October 28), p. 1; 1922, No. 195 (November 1), p. 2. There are similar articles in other issues of TPG published in this period.

21. TPG, 1922, No. 133 (August 18), p. 4; 1922, No. 190 (October 26), p. 3.

22. Ibid., 1922, No. 228 (December 10), p. 4.

23. Izvestiia, March 8, 1923, p. 6. As we will see, Nepmen continued to work legally as middlemen between the ''socialist" and private sectors. For additional decrees regulating this activity, see SZ, 1925, No. 76, art. 569; Zakony o chastnom kapitale, pp. 292-293.

24. KPSS v rezoliutsiiakh i resheniiakh s"ezdov, konferentsii i plenumov TsK, 8th ed. (Moscow, 1970-), 4: 32.

25. TPG, 1923, No. 285 (December 16), p. 2; 1928, No. 220 (September 21), p. 5; Zakony o chastnom kapitale, p. 30; and Trifonov, Klassy, 2: 159.

26. See, for example, Krokodil, 1981, No. 29, p. 5.

27. Ekonomicheskoe stroitel'stvo, 1923, No. 6-7, p. 90.

28. Iugo-Vostok (Rostov-on-the-Don), 1922, No. 1 (November), p. 56. Additional expressions of official distaste for private middlemen may be found in TPG, 1922, No. 191 (October 27), p. 3; I. Ia. Trifonov, Likvidatsiia ekspluatatorskikh klassov v SSSR (Moscow, 1975), p. 190.

29. TPG, 1922, No. 191 (October 27), p. 3; Ekonomicheskoe obozrenie, 1925, April, p. 190; Iugo-Vostok (Rostov-on-the-Don), 1922, No. 1 (November), p. 55; and I. A. Bialyi and A. I. Litvin, Chastnyi kapital v g. Irkutske (Irkutsk, 1929), p. 39.

30. Na novykh putiakh, vypusk I, pp. 207-208; Kron, Chastnaia torgovlia, pp. 16-17; TPG, 1923, No. 231 (October 12), p. 3; and Trud i khoziaistvo (Kazan'), 1927, No. 1, p. 84.

31. Estimates differ considerably. See, for example, Ekonomicheskoe obozrenie, 1926, August, p. 101; 1928, No. 9, p. 27; TPG, 1924, No. 126 (June 5), p. 2; and S. O. Zagorskii, K sotsializmu ili k kapitalizmu? (Paris, 1927), p. 150.

32. Khoziaistvo Sev.-Zap. kraia (Leningrad), 1924, No. 8, p. 51; Kron, Chastnaia torgovlia, p. 37; Torgovye izvestiia, 1925, No. 74 (October 10), p. 5; 1926, No. 108 (October 2), p. 4; and Ginzburg, Chastnyi kapital, p. 11.

33. TPG, 1927, No. 31 (February 8), p. 3; 1928, No. 283 (December 6), p. 4; Ekonomicheskoe obozrenie, 1928, No. 4, p. 161; and Sovetskaia torgovlia, 1926, No. 10, p. 3; 1927, No. 7, pp. 6-7. For more on the zagotovka of various products in different regions, see Trud i khoziaistvo (Kazan'), 1927, No. 1, pp. 88-89, 94; TPG, 1928, No. 229 (October 2), p. 5; 1928, No. 246 (October 21), p. 6; Vasil'kov, Chastnyi kapital v khoziaistve orlovskoi gubernii. (Issledovatel'skaia rabota Gubplana pod rukovodstvom i redaktsiei Vasil'kova ) (Orel, 1928), p. 33; A. Zlobin, Gosudarstvennyi, kooperativnyi i chastnyi kapital v tovarooborote sibirskogo kraia (Novosibirsk, 1927), p. 16; Tverskoi krai (Tver'), 1926, No. 7-8, p. 17; and Finansy i narodnoe khoziaistvo, 1926, No. 6, p. 27.

34. Materialy po istorii SSSR. VII. Dokumenty po istorii sovetskogo obschchestva (Moscow, 1959), p. 150.

35. Torgovye izvestiia, 1925, No. 72 (October 6), p. 5.

36. Sovetskaia torgovlia, 1926, No. 9, p. 9; 1927, No. 7, p. 7. See also Na novykh putiakh, vypusk I, p. 220; Zagorskii, K sotsializmu, pp. 123-124, 150.

37. This advantage (along with others) of the private zagotovka system has been pointed out in chapter 5. For additional documentation on this point, see Sovetskaia torgovlia, 1927, No. 7, pp. 8, 15; TPG, 1924, No. 187 (August 20), p. 3; 1928, No. 15 (January 18), p. 5; 1928, No. 206 (September 5), p. 5; Ekonomicheskoe obozrenie, 1926, August, p. 118; and Sotsialisticheskii vestnik (Berlin), 1929, No. 10-11, p. 11.

38. See, for example, late-summer issues of Torgovye izvestiia and Pravda .

39. Dikhtiar, Sovetskaia torgovlia, p. 271; Moshe Lewin, Russian Peasants and Soviet Power: A Study of Collectivization (London, 1968; reprint, New York, 1975), p. 389. A correspondent reported from the Ukraine that free-market grain prices, far above official prices, were severely hampering the state's efforts to buy grain. TPG, 1928, No. 209 (September 8), p. 5. The Poltava correspondent sent a similar report concerning the zagotovka of hides. TPG, 1928, No. 257 (November 3), p. 4.

40. Measures taken against free grain trade have been described in chapter 3. The state also issued decrees banning the private zagotovka of furs in many regions. See Zakony o chastnom kapitale, pp. 159-160; SU, 1927, No. 77, art. 525; SU, 1927, No. 87, art. 579; SU, 1928, No. 99, art. 626; and SU, 1928, No. 101, art, 638. For more on efforts to reduce the private zagotovka of hides, see TPG, 1928, No. 283 (December 6), p. 4. Private zagotovka activity in general was undercut indirectly by the drastic reduction in the number of private retail traders in 1928 and 1929, which left private middlemen with few customers. See (concerning eggs and butter) Ekonomicheskoe obozrenie, 1928, No. 4, p. 164.

41. For detailed legal provisions concerning the formation and operation of joint-stock companies, see Zakony o chastnom kapitale, pp. 37-57.

42. Ekonomicheskaia zhizn', 1922, No. 145 (July 2), p. 3; Severo-Kavkazskii krai (Rostov-on-the-Don), 1925, No. 11-12, pp. 126-127. For other examples, see Torgovye izvestiia, 1925, No. 48 (August 11), p. 2; TPG, 1923, No. 38 (February 18), p. 2; and Torgovlia, promyshlennost' i finansy, 1925, No. 9, p. 232.

43. Khoziaistvo i upravlenie, 1927, No. 6, pp. 83, 86. One disadvantage of private joint-stock companies was that they were more prominently in the view of state regulatory and tax agencies than were most ordinary private enterprises.

44. TPG, 1928, No. 255 (November 1), p. 4.

45. Ibid., 1922, No. 102 (July 13), p. 3; 1922, No. 120 (August 3), p. 4; 1923, No. 197 (September 2), p. 5.

46. Torgovye izvestiia, 1926, No. 76 (July 13), p. 1.

47. Dikhtiar, Sovetskaia torgovlia, p. 197; TPG, 1927, No. 29 (February 5), p. 2.

48. Khoziaistvo i upravlenie, 1927, No. 6, pp. 84, 86; Materialy. VII., p. 36.

49. Materialy. VII., p. 45.

50. Khoziaistvo i upravlenie, 1927, No. 6, p. 84; Torgovye izvestiia, 1926, No. 76 (July 13), p. 1; and Materialy. VII., pp. 39-40.

51. Sovetskaia torgovlia, 1927, No. 15, p. 13; Materialy. VII., p. 37; and Khoziaistvo i upravlenie, 1927, No. 6, p. 88.

52. Materialy. VII., p. 36.

53. Torgovye izvestiia, 1926, No. 76 (July 13), p. 1; I. A. Gladkov, ed., Sovetskoe narodnoe khoziaistvo v 1921-1925 gg. (Moscow, 1960), p. 427.

54. Khoziaistvo i upravlenie, 1927, No. 6, p. 87. At least some (and perhaps much) of the private capital invested in joint-stock operations came from foreigners, thus rendering the Nepmen's contribution even less significant. Ekonomicheskoe stroitel'stvo, 1925, No. 3, p. 114.

55. SU, 1922, No. 12, art. 110; S. L. Fridman, Chastnyi kapital na denezhnom rynke (Moscow, 1925), pp. 9-11. There were also a few private banks (operating with some state capital and supervision), the first of which was formed in Rostov-on-the-Don in April.

56. Nashe khoziaistvo (Vladimir), 1923, No. 6, p. 65; Trifonov, Klassy, 2: 55; and Fridman, Chastnyi kapital, p. 70.

57. Mingulin, Puti razvitiia, p. 120; Fridman, Chastnyi kapital, p. 69; Zagorskii, K sotsializmu, p. 254; and Ekonomicheskoe obozrenie, 1926, February, pp. 161-162. Data in some sources differ slightly.

58. Finansy i narodnoe khoziaistvo, 1927, No. 41, pp. 16-17; 1929, No. 8, p. 18; Materialy. VII., pp. 30, 35; and SZ, 1929, No. 72, art. 690. During the period from October 1, 1926, to October 1, 1927, the state cut its loans to OVKs by 77 percent.

59. Ekonomicheskoe obozrenie, 1924, No. 22, p. 46. See also V. V. Ivanovskii, Chastnyi torgovyi kapital na rynke Saratovskoi gubernii (Saratov, 1927), p. 55.

60. See, for example, the results of a survey of private traders in Voronezh: G. P. Paduchev, Chastnyi torgovets pri novoi ekonomicheskoi politike (po dannym biudzhetnogo obsledovaniia) (Voronezh, 1926), p. 100.

61. Ekonomicheskoe obozrenie, 1926, February, p. 163.

62. Ibid., 1926, August, p. 106; A. Zalkind, ed., Chastnaia torgovlia Soiuza SSR (Moscow, 1927), pp. 90, 92; and Ivanovskii, Chastnyi torgovyi kapital, p. 54.

63. Ekonomicheskoe obozrenie, 1926, February, pp. 161-162; 1927, March, pp. 132-133.

64. For data with which to make these estimates, see Ginzburg, Chastnyi kapital, pp. 171-173; Ekonomicheskoe obozrenie, 1926, February, pp. 161-162; 1927, March, pp. 132-133; and Mingulin, Puti razvitiia, pp. 63, 122. Concerning just the Ukraine, see Finansy i narodnoe khoziaistvo, 1927, No. 2, p. 18.

65. The percentages of OVK loans to Nepmen made with funds borrowed from state banks are as follows: October 1, 1924, 23 percent; January 1, 1925, 31 percent; April 1, 1925, 29 percent; July 1, 1925, 34 percent; October 1, 1925, 38 percent; January 1, 1926, 46 percent; April 1, 1926, 33 percent; July 1, 1926, 32 percent; October 1, 1926, 30 percent. These figures can be derived from data in Ekonomicheskoe obozrenie, 1927, March, pp. 132-133. Viewed from a different angle, state banks made one fifth of their loans to Nepmen via OVKs in 1925 and one quarter in 1926. Zalkind, Chastnaia torgovlia, p. 100.

66. Torgovye izvestiia, 1925, No. 21 (May 26), p. 6; 1925, No. 27 (June 13), p. 4; Mestnoe khoziaistvo (Kiev), 1924, No. 6 (March), pp. 74-75; Paduchev, Chastnyi torgovets, pp. 74-75, 77; and Fridman, Chastnyi kapital, p. 73.

67. Finansy i narodnoe khoziaistvo, 1926, No. 3, p. 18; 1926, No. 8, p. 21; 1927, No. 45, p. 19; Vasil'kov, Chastnyi kapital, p. 84; Mestnoe khoziaistvo (Kiev), 1924, No. 6 (March), p. 75; and Zagorskii, K sotsializmu, pp. 256-257.

68. V. A. Arkhipov and L. F. Morozov, Bor'ba protiv kapitalisticheskikh elementov v promyshlennosti i torgovle. 20-e—nachalo 30-kh godov (Moscow, 1978), p. 82; V. Ia. Laverychev, Krupnaia burzhuaziia v poreformennoi Rossii (1861-1900 gg.) (Moscow, 1974), p. 20.