1. For a recent example, see Jane Goodall, Through a Window: My Thirty Years with the Chimpanzees of Gombe (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1990).

2. For an account of some of those linkages, see Howard L. Kaye, The Social Meaning of Modern Biology: From Social Darwinism to Sociobiology (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1986).

3. On this point, see Peter Wagner, "Science of Society Lost: On the Failure to Establish Sociology in Europe During the Classical Period," in Discourses on Society , vol. 15, ed. Peter Wagner, Bjorn. Wittrock, and R. Whitley (Amsterdam: Kluwer, 1990), 219-45.

4. For an example, see Marshall Sahlins, The Use and Abuse of Biology (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1976). For a somewhat different approach, see Walter R. Gove, "Sociobiology Misses the Mark: An Essay on Why Biology but Not Sociobiology Is Very Relevant to Sociology," American Sociologist 18 (Fall 1987): 258-77.

5. For a political critique of sociobiology, see Richard C. Lewontin, Steven Rose, and Leon J. Kamin, Not in Our Genes: Biology, Ideology, and Human Nature (New York: Pantheon Books, 1984). A philosophical critique is Philip Kitcher's Vaulting Ambition: Sociobiology and the Quest for Human Nature (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1985). For a critique of some of the critiques, see Mary Midgley, "Rival Fatalisms: The Hollowness of the Sociobiology Debate," in Sociobiology Examined , ed. Ashley Montague (New York: Oxford University Press, 1980), 15-38.

6. Thomas A. Sebeok, ed., How Animals Communicate (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1977).

7. Donald E. Koodsma, "Aspects of Learning in the Ontogeny of Bird Song: Where, from Whom, When, How Many, Which, and How Accurately," in The Development of Behavior: Comparative and Evolutionary Aspects , ed. Gordon M. Burghardt and Marc Beckoff (New York: Garland STPM Press, 1978) 215-30. The reference to Mead is from George Herbert Mead, Mind, Self, and Society from the Standpoint of a Social Behaviorist (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962; originally published in 1934).

8. W. John Smith, "Communication in Birds," in Sebeok, How Animals Communicate , 545-74.

9. B. T. Gardner and R. A. Gardner, "Teaching Sign Language to a Chimpanzee," Science 165 (15 August ig6o): 664-72; David Premack and Guy Woodruff, "Does the Chimpanzee Have a Theory of Mind?" Behavioral and Brain Sciences 1 (December 1978): 515-26; Duane M. Rumbaugh and Timothy V. Gill, "Lana's Acquisition of Language Skills," in Language Learning by Chimpanzee: The LANA Project , ed. Duane M. Rumbaugh (New York: Academic Press, 1977), 165-92.

10. Philip Lieberman, "The Phylogeny of Language," in Sebeok, How Animals Communicate , 3-25.

11. A review of the features that make human speech and syntax different from those of other species is contained in Philip Lieberman, Uniquely Human: The Evolution of Speech, Thought, and Selfless Behavior (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1991).

12. The term metacommunication comes from Gregory Bateson, "A Theory of Play and Fantasy," Psychiatric Research Reports 2 (1955): 39-51.

13. Stuart A. Altmann, "The Structure of Primate Social Communication," in Social Communication Among Primates , ed. Stuart A. Altmann (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1967), 356.

14. Edward O. Wilson, Sociobiology: The New Synthesis (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1975), 191.

15. Dorothy L. Cheney and Robert M. Seyfarth, How Monkeys See the World: Inside the Mind of Another Species (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990), quoted at 304.

16. Ibid., 7.

17. Frans de Waal, Chimpanzee Politics: Power and Sex Among Apes (New York: Harper and Row, 1982).

18. Cheney and Seyfarth, How Monkeys See the World , 307.

19. For the idea that thought has its own language, see Jerry Fodor, The Language of Thought (New York: Crowell, 1975).

20. Stephen Walker, Animal Thought (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1983); Donald R. Griffin, The Question of Animal Awareness: Evolutionary Continuity of Mental Experience , rev. ed. (Los Altos, Calif.: William Kaufmann, 1981), and Animal Thinking (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1984); Joseph Mortensen, Whale Songs and Wasp Maps: The Mystery of Animal Thinking (New York: Dutton, 1987).

21. Griffin, The Question of Animal Awareness and Animal Thinking , passim.

22. Griffin, Animal Thinking , 37.

23. Ibid., 111.

24. Duane M. Rumbaugh, "Current and Future Research on Chimpanzee Intellect," in Understanding Chimpanzees , ed. Paul G. Heltne and Linda A. Marquardt (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1989), 296.

25. Claude Lévi-Strauss, The Elementary Structures of Kinship , trans. James Harle Bell, John Richard von Sturmer, and Rodney Needham (Boston: Beacon Press, 1969), 6 (originally published in 1949).

26. Martin Lindauer, Communication Among Social Bees , rev. ed. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1971), and "The Functional Significance of the Honey Bee Waggle Dance," American Naturalist 105 (March-April 1971): 89-96.

27. Charles. Peirce, "How to Make Our Ideas Clear," in Philosophical Writings of Peirce , ed. Julius Buchler (New York: Dover, 1955), 23-41 (originally published in 1878). See also Charles W. Morris, "Introduction: George H. Mead as Social Psychologist and Social Philosopher," in Mead, Mind, Self, and Society , ix-xxxv.

28. Peirce, "How to Make Our Ideas Clear," 29.

29. Griffin, The Question of Animal Awareness , 48. The reference to Morris is from Charles W. Morris, Signs, Language, and Behavior (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1946), 25. Altmann, "The Structure of Primate Social Communication," also relies on Morris in his discussion of social communication among primates.

30. Heinz Pagels, The Dreams of Reason (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1988), 192-94.

31. Jane Goodall, In the Shadow of Man (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1971), 117-20.

32. Benjamin B. Beck, Animal Tool Behavior (New York: Garland STPM Press, 1980).

33. Benjamin B. Beck, "Primate Tool Behavior," in Socioecology and Psychology of Primates , ed. Russell H. Tuttle (The Hague: Mouton, 1977), 414-15.

34. Griffin, Animal Thinking , 126.

35. John Tyler Bonner, The Evolution of Culture in Animals (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1980), 153.

36. For Cooley's conception of the looking-glass self, see Charles Horton Cooley, Human Nature and the Social Order (New York: Schocken Books, 1964).

37. Gordon Gallup, "Self Recognition in Primates: A Comparative Approach to the Bidirectional Properties of Consciousness," American Psychologist 32 (May 1977): 329-38.

38. Gordon Gallup, "Towards an Operational Definition of Self-Awareness," in Tuttle, Socioecology , 335.

39. Mead, Mind, Self, and Society , passim.

40. Edward O. Wilson, The Insect Societies (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1971).

41. On reciprocal altruism, see R. L. Trivers, "The Evolution of Reciprocal Altruism," Quarterly Review of Biology 46 (March 1971): 35-57; Richard Dawkins's reformulation is contained in The Selfish Gene (New York: Oxford University Press, 1976).

42. Maynard J. Smith, "The Concepts of Sociobiology," in Morality as a Biological Phenomenon: The Presuppositions of Sociobiological Research , ed. Gunther S. Stent (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980), 21-30; Frans de Waal, Peacemaking Among Primates (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1989), 7.

43. William D. Hamilton, "The Genetical Evolution of Social Behavior, I and II," Journal of Theoretical Biology 7 (July 1964): 1-52; Robert Axelrod, The Evolution of Cooperation (New York: Basic Books, 1984).

44. Gunther S. Stent, "Introduction," in Morality as a Biological. Phenomenon , 14.

45. Tom Regan, The Case for Animal Rights (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983).

46. Donna Haraway, "A Manifesto for Cyborgs: Science, Technology, and Socialist Feminism in the 1980s," in Feminism/Postmodernism , ed. Linda J. Nicholson (New York: Routledge, 1990), 190-233, quoted at 193.

47. Charles J. Lumsden and Edward O. Wilson, Genes, Mind, and Culture: The Coevolutionary Process (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1981), 58.

48. Dawkins, The Selfish Gene , passim.

49. Richard Dawkins, The Blind Watchmaker (New York: Norton, 1986).

50. Lumsden and Wilson, Genes, Mind, and Culture , 332.

51. Wilson, The Insect Societies , 226.

52. Lumsden and Wilson, Genes, Mind, and Culture , 5.

53. Ibid., 332.

54. Ibid., 96.

55. Charles J. Lumsden and Edward O. Wilson, Promethean Fire: Reflections on the Origin of the Mind (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1983), 117.

56. Lumsden and Wilson, Genes, Mind, and Culture , 21.

57. Dawkins, The Selfish Gene , 205-8.

58. Edward O. Wilson, On Human Nature (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1978), 78.

59. David P. Barash, The Hare and the Tortoise (New York: Viking, 1986).

60. Norbert Elias, The Civilizing Process (New York: Urizen Books, 1978).

61. See C. G. N. Lasker and G. W. Lasker, eds., Biological Aspects of Human Migration (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,.1988); and Robert Boyd and Peter J. Richardson, Culture and the Evolutionary Process (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985).

62. Albert J. Ammerman and L. L. Cavalli-Sforza, The Neolithic Transformation and the Genetics of Population in Europe (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1984), 60.

63. Lumsden and Wilson, Promethean Fire , 152.

64. Kaye, Social Meaning of Modern Biology , 120.

65. François Jacob, The Logic of Life: A History of Heredity , trans. Betty E. Spillman (New York: Pantheon Books, 1973), 3.

66. Dawkins, The Selfish Gene , 203.

67. Ibid., 206.

68. Gabriel de Tarde, The Laws of Imitation , trans. Elsie Clews Parsons (New York: Holt, 1903).

69. Lumsden and Wilson, Promethean Fire , 154 (emphasis added).

70. Lumsden and Wilson, Genes, Mind, and Culture , 5.

71. Lumsden and Wilson, Promethean Fire , 173.

72. See, for example, Joseph Lopreato, Human Nature and Bio-cultural Evolution (Boston: Allen and Unwin, 1984); Paul R. Wozniak, "Making Sociobiological Sense out of Sociology," Sociological Quarterly 25 (Spring 1984): 191-204; and David Rindos, "The Evolution of the Capacity for Culture: Sociobiology, Structuralism, and Cultural Selectiveness," Current Anthropology 27 (August-October 1986): 315-32.

73. See, for example, the essays in Albert Somit, ed., Biology and Politics: Recent Explorations (The Hague: Mouton, 1976); Thomas Landon Thorson, Biopolitics (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1970); and Fred H. Willhoite, Jr., "Primates and Political Authority: A Biobehavioral Perspective," American Political Science Review 70 (December 1976): 1110-26.

74. John H. Beckstrom, Sociobiology and the Law: The Biology of Altruism in the Courtroom of the Future (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1985), and Evolutionary Jurisprudence: Prospects and Limitations in the Use of Modern Darwinism Throughout the Legal Process (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1989).

75. See, for example, Charles Dyke, The Evolutionary Dynamics of Complex Systems: A Study in Biological Complexity (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988); and Robert A. Hinde, Individuals, Relationships, and Culture: Links Between Ethology and the Social Sciences (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987).

76. Carl Degler, In Search of Human Nature: The Decline and Revival of Darwinism in American Social Thought (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991).

77. Cynthia Fuchs Epstein, Deceptive Distinctions: Sex, Gender, and the Social Order (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1988); David Greenberg, The Construction of Homosexuality (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988).

78. Joan Wallach Scott, Gender and the Politics of History (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988), 2. Scott's approach differs from Epstein's, but both would agree on this point.

79. Epstein, Deceptive Distinctions , 71.

80. See Jeff Coulter, The Social Construction of Mind (London: Macmillan, 1979), although Coulter bases his argument on different theoretical grounds than those proposed here.