1. For the development of Petersburg's eighteenth-century plan, see Iu. A. Egorov, Ansambl' v gradostroitel'stve SSSR: Ocherki (Moscow, 1961), pp. 33-72.

2. "Dom A. Ia. Baryshnikova," Zodchii , 1900, no. 3:25-26, with an illustration of the original facade design by Shaub. As was frequently the case in Zodchii , the architect—in this case Baryshnikov himself—described the project, which contained twenty-one rental apartments, each with all the basic conveniences as well as facilities for storage in the basement. There were four shops on the ground floor and a large apartment for the architect-owner. The total cost of the structure was 280,000 rubles.

3. See, for example, Zodchii , 1900, no. 1:12; also Nedelia stroitelia , 1900, no. 30:190, 194.

4. "Novye veianiia v arkhitekture," Nedelia stroitelia , 1899, no. 42:303.

5. Pavel Makarov, "Novye obshchestvennye zdaniia v Londone," Zodchii , 1902, no. 14:170.

6. For an exhaustive list of buildings in the new style constructed between 1897 and 1915 (grouped by region in Leningrad), see B. M. Kirikov, "Peterburgskii modern," Panorama iskusstv 10 (1978): 99-148, with its informative introductory essay. Although the twenty-seven-page list includes several hundred undistinguished buildings and excludes some major structures because they cannot be classified as part of the Petersburg moderne, it is still a useful guide to the city's architectural development.

7. The career of Leontii Benois, whose work was frequently featured in Zodchii , is summarized in V. G. Lisovskii and L. A. Iudina, "Zamechatel'nyi zodchii i pedagog," Stroitel'stvo i arkhitektura Leningrada , 1979, no. 2:35-38. Benois's students, in addition to Lidval, included Aleksei Shchusev, Nikolai Vasilev, Marian Lialevich, Vasilii Shchuko, Marian Peretiatkovich, Andrei Belogrud, Ivan Fomin, Vladimir Pokrovskii, Oskar Munts, and many other architects.

8. Lidval's career is surveyed by V. G. Lisovskii in "Master Peterburgskogo moderna," Stroitel'stvo i arkhitektura Leningrada , 1980, no. 1:34-38. The most extensive appreciation of his work was provided by his protégé Andrei Ohl, an architect, in the monograph F. Lidval (Petersburg, 1914).

9. For an analysis of the factors affecting the development of the outlying areas of Petersburg, see James H. Bater, St. Petersburg: Industrialization and Change (Montreal, 1976), pp. 317, 323-33. See also B. M. Kochakov, ed., Ocherki istorii Leningrada , vol. 3, Period imperializma i burzhuazno-demokraticheskikh revoliutsii (Moscow-Leningrad, 1956), pp. 906-8, 914-15, 920.

10. A list of Pretro's work in Petersburg is contained in Valerii G. Isachenko, ed., Arkhitektory-stroiteli Peterburga-Petrograda nachala XX veka (Leningrad, 1982), pp. 111-12.

11. Pavel Makarov, "Finliandskoe dekorativnoe iskusstvo," Zodchii , 1903, no. 14:183-87. See also chapter 2, p. 000. The Putilova building shows a number of similarities to the Olofsborg apartment house designed by Gesellius, Lindgren, and Saarinen in Helsinki (1900-1902). See Marika Hausen, "From the National to the International," in Marika Hausen et al., Saarinen in Finland (Helsinki, 1984), p. 36. The most detailed and comprehensive survey of Helsinki's architecture in the new style appears in Jonathan Moorhouse, Michael Carapetian, and Leena Ahtola-Moorhouse, Helsinki Jugendstil Architecture, 1895-1915 (Helsinki, 1987).

12. Isachenko, Arkhitektory-stroiteli , p. 97.

13. Project sketches by Bubyr appeared in Zodchii in the years 1903-1907 and 1910. Bubyr's work in Petersburg is listed in Isachenko, Arkhitektory-stroiteli , pp. 28-29.

14. For a discussion of Bubyr's engineering achievements, see Valerii G. Isachenko, "Pobornik novogo stilia: Stranitsy continue

tvorcheskoi biografii A. F. Bubyria," Stroitel'stvo i arkhitektura Leningrada , 1978, no. 3:44-47.

15. In 1907 Zodchii included Bubyr and Vasilev's project for the Drama Theater (plate 31); and in the following year, a notice of the jury decision (no first prize) appeared in no. 40:376.

16. In 1911-1912 Saarinen built the National Bank (Estobank) in Revel (illustrated in Hausen, "From the National to the International, p. 70), and in 1911 he assumed responsibility for designing a plan for the same city. See Kirmo Mikkola, "The Roots of Eliel Saarinen's Town Plans," in Marika Hausen et al., Saarinen in Finland (Helsinki, 1984), pp. 98-101. The Revel town plan—completed in 1913 but never implemented—is also discussed in Albert Christ Janer, Eliel Saarinen (Chicago, 1979), pp. 42-43, 46-47. For the influence of Finnish architects such as Saarinen and Lars Sonck on the architecture of Riga (particularly in the romantic nationalism phase), see Ianis A. Krastin'sh, Stil' modern v arkhitekture Rigi (Moscow, 1988). Although Riga, as the capital of Latvia, lies beyond the scope of a study of Russian architecture, the style moderne there has much in common with that in Petersburg as well as in Helsinki and Tallinn. Indeed, the moderne remained dominant throughout the prerevolutionary construction boom in Riga, one of the Russian empire's most heavily industrialized cities. Prominent Western architects who built in the city included Peter Behrens (the Union electric factory) and Henry van de Velde (the parsonage, not extant, of the Lutheran Church of St. Peter).

17. For a list of buildings designed by Vasilev and his partners in Petersburg, see Isachenko, Arkhitektory-stroiteli , pp. 30-31.

18. Bubyr published a description of the apartment house on Stremiannyi Street in Zodchii , 1906, no. 49:522-23, with the project sketch reproduced in plate 54.

19. V. G. Lisovskii summarizes Vasilev's large apartment projects in "Master shkoly natsional'nogo romantizma," Stroitel'stvo i arkhitektura Leningrada , 1975, no. 4:44. Sketches of the design by Vasilev and Aleksandr Dmitriev for an apartment project on Kamennoostrovskii Prospekt, underwritten by the First Russian Insurance Society, appeared in Zodchii , 1911, plates 5-6, with the jury response in 1911, no. 9:98.

20. Vasilev's design for the Palace of Soviets is reproduced in Lisovskii, "Master shkoly," p. 44.

21. See Isachenko, Arkhitektory-stroiteli , p. 73.

22. M. A. Kozlovskaia provides a succinct analysis, with plans, of the technical structure of the apartment house by Baldi in Konstruktsii i arkhitekturnaia forma v russkom zodchestve XIX-nachala XX vv ., ed. Iu. S. Lebedev (Moscow, 1977), pp. 133-35.

23. The Marks project is included in Valerii G. Isachenko's survey of Nikolai Dmitriev's career, "Trud otdannyi narodu," Leningradskaia panorama , 1982, no. 3:30-33.

24. N. V. Dmitriev, Bor'ba s zhilishchnoi nuzhdoi (Petersburg, 1903).

25. A detailed description of the workers' village is contained in a review of the completed project presented to the Petersburg Society of Architects on 10 December 1906 and published shortly thereafter in Zodchii , 1906, no. 52:523-24.

26. A summary of Dikanskii's lecture on 23 January and of the ensuing discussion was published in Zodchii , 1907, no. 4:29-31. The lecture was subsequently published in its entirety as "Zhilishchnaia nuzhda" in Zodchii , 1907, no. 22:221-24; no. 23:233-40; no. 24:253-61; no. 28:285-98; no. 31:321-24; no. 32:333-39; no. 34:357-66; no. 36:381-90. Dikanskii's extensive account of measures dealing with the workers' housing crisis in Western Europe, particularly Great Britain and Germany, appeared in book form as Kvartirnyi vopros i sotsial'nye opyty resheniia (The apartment question and social attempts for a solution) (Petersburg, 1908).

27. Zodchii , 1907, no. 4:30. The Society for the Construction and Improvement of Housing for the Needy Population, renamed the Society for the Struggle with the Housing Need, was one of a few voluntary agencies formed to invest in subsidized housing for the needy. Dikanskii discussed the efforts of these organizations and the woeful inadequacy of their resources in Zodchii , no. 36:387-88.

28. Zodchii , 1907, no. 4:30.

29. Ibid.

28. Zodchii , 1907, no. 4:30.

29. Ibid.

30. The most recent discussion of Russian society before the revolution is Teodor Shanin, The Roots of Otherness: Russia's Turn of the Century , 2 vols. (New Haven, 1986). For a recent Soviet view of the final prewar struggle for political power among factions representing the bourgeoisie and the landowning nobility, see V. S. Diakin, Burzhuaziia, dvorianstvo i tsarizm v 1911-1914 gg. Razlozhenie tret'eiiunskoi sistemy (Leningrad, 1988).

31. Zodchii , 1907, no. 36:388.

32. See p. 307n27.

33. See I. G. Tokareva, "V poiskakh 'novogo stilia,'" Leningradskaia panorama , 1987, no. 8:33-35.

34. Russian interest in the development of high-quality brick resulted in a number of publications, including Logachevskii, "Kirpich XX stoletiia," Zodchii , 1902, no. 38:438-39.

35. K. Shmidt, "Dom-osobniak P. P. Forostovskogo v S.-Peterburge," Zodchii , 1901, no. 6:77.

36. Ibid.

35. K. Shmidt, "Dom-osobniak P. P. Forostovskogo v S.-Peterburge," Zodchii , 1901, no. 6:77.

36. Ibid.

37. Gogen, who graduated from the Academy of Arts in 1879, built throughout the Russian empire (including Port Arthur) and enjoyed the patronage of the highest levels of continue

the imperial court. His career is summarized in his obituary, by Viktor Evald, in Zodchii , 1914, no. 12:143-44.

38. See the sketch and elevation of the Kshesinskaia mansion in Zodchii , 1905, plates 43-45. In 1910 photographs of the house (no longer identified by the owner's name but by address) appeared in Zodchii , plates 1 and 24. For a favorable description, see B. M. Kirikov, "Obrazets stilia modern: Novye materialy ob inter'erakh pamiatnika arkhitektury," Stroitel'stvo i arkhitektura Leningrada , 1976, no. 6:38-41.

39. The Kshesinskaia bedroom is behind the two smaller rooms on the front facade, one with a balcony, that are identified as children's rooms.

40. Zodchii , 1914, no. 12:143.

41. Elena A. Borisova and Tatiana P. Kazhdan, Russkaia arkhitektura kontsa XIX-nachala XX veka (Moscow, 1971), p. 93.

42. Two accounts in English of the mansion as Bolshevik headquarters are Edmund Wilson, To the Finland Station (New York, 1940), pp. 473-74; and Adam Ulam, The Bolsheviks (New York, 1965), p. 323, n. 9. See also the description in A. N. Petrov, ed., Pamiatniki arkhitektury Leningrada (Leningrad, 1971), pp. 335, 337; and "V stenakh shtaba bol'shevikov," Leningradskaia panorama , 1987, no. 11:4-6. Kshesinskaia's own indulgent description of the house appears in her memoirs: Mathilde Kschessinska, Dancing in Petersburg , trans. Arnold Haskell (Garden City, N. Y., 1961), p. 104. The vicissitudes of both the owner and the house in 1917 are also described (163, 167-171).

43. Isachenko, Arkhitektory-stroiteli , p. 8.

44. Zodchii , 1908, no. 48:440-41.

45. Ibid.

44. Zodchii , 1908, no. 48:440-41.

45. Ibid.

46. For a detailed analysis, with photographs and plans, of the Melnikov house (1929), see S. Frederick Starr, Melnikov: Solo Architect in a Mass Society (Princeton, N. J., 1978), pp. 117-25.

47. Zodchii , 1908, no. 48:441.

48. Photographs of both the front and back of the house (including one in color by Sergei Prokudin-Gorskii) appeared in Zodchii , 1908, plates 50-51.

49. A general survey, well illustrated and annotated, of the development of the islands north of the mouth of the Neva River is provided by V. A. Vitiazeva, Nevskie ostrova , Leningrad, 1986. A more detailed description of Stone Island appears in the same author's Kamennyi Ostrov (Leningrad, 1975).

50. Vitiazeva, Kamennyi Ostrova , pp. 102-3. An illustration of the Gausvald dacha appeared in Zodchii , 1900, plate 56.

51. See the laudatory essay by A. G. Uspenskii, "Neskol'ko slov ob angliiskoi narodnoi arkhitekture," Zodchii , 1900, no. 4:47-52, especially the discussion of Voysey (with illustrations of three of his houses) on pp. 50-52. Uspenskii notes that he drew material for the article—based on a lecture he gave before the Society of Architects in February 1900—from German articles in Dekorative Kunst in 1898 and 1899.

52. The influence of Baillie Scott, in particular, on the design of Olbrich's own house at Matildenhöhe is suggested by Ian Latham, Joseph Maria Olbrich (New York, 1980), p. 58. The Keller house is described and illustrated on pp. 86-89.

53. Recent photographs of the Gau dacha and service buildings are included in Vitiazeva, Kamennyi Ostrov , pp. 106-7.

54. Ibid., pp. 112-21.

53. Recent photographs of the Gau dacha and service buildings are included in Vitiazeva, Kamennyi Ostrov , pp. 106-7.

54. Ibid., pp. 112-21.

55. For a list of Meltser's work in Petersburg (including the redecorating of the Winter Palace), see Isachenko, Arkhitektory-stroiteli , pp. 94-95. M. V. Iogansen questions some of the attributions to Meltser of remodeled Winter Palace interiors in Ermitazh: Istoriia i arkhitektura zdanii , ed. V. I. Piliavskii (Leningrad, 1974), pp. 179-81. For additional information on the Meltser factory, see "Iubilei R. F. Mel'tsera," Zodchii , 1903, no. 45:555-56.

56. See William Brumfield, "The Decorative Arts in Russian Architecture, 1900-1907," Journal of Decorative and Propaganda Arts 5 (1987): 17, 19.

57. The carriage house is visible at the right in Fig. 219.

58. For a detailed analysis of the Andreev house, with comments on the interior by Andreev's visitors, see G. D. Bykova's excellent monograph, Andrei Ol' (Leningrad, 1976), pp. 14-20. The Andreev house (no longer extant) was extensively photographed; see Ezhegodnik Obshchestva arkhitektorov-khudozhnikov , 1909, pp. 97-99.

59. In fact, the term "Gothicized premoderne" is used in Tokareva, "V poiskakh 'novogo stilia,'" p. 33. M. A. Kozlovskaia gives a concise analysis of the Fabergé building in "Konstruktivnye struktury," p. 132.

60. Gavriil Baranovskii's work in Petersburg is listed in Isachenko, Arkhitektory-stroiteli , pp. 12-13. Three archival photographs of his interior design for the Eliseev house on Gagarin Quay are reproduced in Evgeniia I. Kirichenko, Russkaia arkhitektura 1830-1910-kh godov (Moscow, 1982), pp. 94-95. For a sketch of the Eliseev enterprise and the turbulent domestic life of the firm's last patriarch, Grigorii Grigor'evich Eliseev, see Daniil Granin, "Brat'ia Eliseevy," Ogonek , 1989, no. 23:20-23.

61. See M. A. Kozlovskaia's analysis of the relation between structure and facade in "Konstruktivnye struktury," pp. 149-50.

62. Isachenko, Arkhitektory-stroiteli , pp. 124-27.

63. The exceptionally important role of Siuzor's apartment houses in the Leningrad ensemble is discussed in Valerii G. Isachenko, "V shirokom diapazone," Leningradskaia panorama , 1985, no. 10:28-31. break

64. For comments on American skyscrapers in the Russian architectural press, see William Craft Brumfield, "Russian Perceptions of American Architecture, 1870-1917," in Architecture and the New Urban Environment . A detailed description with photographs of the Singer Building in Petersburg appeared in Zodchii , 1906, no. 39:390-91; plates 41-43.

65. Zodchii , 1906, no. 39:391.

66. Ibid., p. 390.

67. Ibid.

65. Zodchii , 1906, no. 39:391.

66. Ibid., p. 390.

67. Ibid.

65. Zodchii , 1906, no. 39:391.

66. Ibid., p. 390.

67. Ibid.

68. For a listing of the technical consultants and contractors in the Singer project, see ibid., p. 391.

69. Isachenko, Arkhitektory-stroiteli , p. 117.

70. Kirichenko illustrates the original appearance of the building in an archival photograph ( Russkaia arkhitektura , p. 222).

71. The Building of the Guards' Economic Society was described and illustrated in Zodchii , 1910, no. 478:471-73, and plates 48-50. The cost of the structure was listed as 1.2 million rubles.

72. Petrov, Pamiatniki arkhitektury Leningrada , pp. 385-87.

73. Vasilev described the passage in Zodchii , 1913, no. 10:119, and plate 5.

74. Illustrations of both projects, with other competition entries, were published in Zodchii , 1912, plates 18 and 23. The project for the Noblemen's Assembly went to the Kosiakov brothers, who are discussed at the end of this chapter.

75. A. V. Erofeev provides information on Ia. V. Roll (a real estate developer from Kharkov) and his project for the Sretenskii shopping passage and cinema (Moscow) in "Vydaiushchiesia sovetskie arkhitektory brat'ia L. A., V. A. i A. A. Vesniny," in Problemy istorii sovetskoi arkhitekturnogo , ed. A. A. Strigaleva (Moscow, 1985), pp. 112-13. The project sketches appeared in Ezhegodnik Moskovskogo arkhitekturnogo obshchestva , no. 4 (1914-1916), pp. 36-37.

76. The design of Behrens's house at Matildenhöhe was featured in Pavel Makarov's report on the 1901 Darmstadt exhibition, Zodchii , 1902, no. 33:372-73.

77. Moskovskii arkhitekturnyi mir , 1913, p. 107. See also Marian Lialevich, "Dom germanskogo posol'stva," Peterburgskaia gazeta , 1913, no. 19. A detailed critique of the embassy—with favorable commentary on Behrens's rough-hewn interpretation of neoclassicism, but with no mention of his name—appeared in an article signed "G." ("Dom germanskogo posol'stva," Arkhitekturno-khudozhestvennyi ezhenedel'nik , 1914, no. 2:5-7). After the beginning of the war, another article in the same journal showed a predictable nationalist reaction against the embassy building and its symbolic projection of German might. See Martell, "Razgadannyi rebus," Arkhitekturno-khudozhestvennyi ezhenedel'nik , 1914, no. 26:253-55.

78. Moskovskii arkhitekturnyi mir , no. 4 (1915), p. 120, with accompanying photograph. The Vyborg station (1904-1913) was destroyed during the Second World War. See Saarinen in Finland , p. 48.

79. For a detailed survey of Lishnevskii's career, see S. G. Fedorov, "I obraz, i funktsiia," Stroitel'stvo i arkhitektura Leningrada , 1980, no. 6:31-35.

80. See Valerii G. Isachenko, "Tvorchestvo brat'ev Kosiakovykh," Stroitel'stvo i arkhitektura Leningrada , 1981, no. 6:34-37. This summary of work by the Kosiakov brothers includes exterior photographs of a number of churches by Vasilii Kosiakov.

81. For archival photographs of the interior of the Naval Cathedral, see E. I. Kirichenko, Russkaia arkhitektura , pp. 376-77.

82. "Molitvennyi dom staroobriadtsev," Zodchii , 1908, no. 45:418-19. The church was also extensively illustrated in Ezhegodnik Obshchestva arkhitektorov-khudozhnikov , no. 2 (1907), pp. 54-55; no. 3 (1908), pp. 51-55; no. 4 (1909), pp. 51-53.

83. The project for the mosque was commented on several times in Zodchii , including a critique of the competition entries, 1908, no. 15:135-36. See also Petrov, Pamiatniki arkhitektury Leningrada , pp. 405-7.

84. Ibid., p. 405.

83. The project for the mosque was commented on several times in Zodchii , including a critique of the competition entries, 1908, no. 15:135-36. See also Petrov, Pamiatniki arkhitektury Leningrada , pp. 405-7.

84. Ibid., p. 405.

85. Project sketches and photographs of the synagogue appeared in Ezhegodnik Obshchestva arkhitektorov-khudozhnikov , no. 3 (1908), p. 31; no. 6 (1911), pp. 26-29; no. 7 (1912), p. 33.

86. See Borisova and Kazhdan, Russkaia arkhitektura , pp. 113, 130-31. A history of various projects to rebuild the Sytnyi Market is contained in Marina Orlova, "Sytnyi, Mytnyi, i drugie," Leningradskaia panorama , 1989, no. 5:25-27.

87. 'M. G. Strakun,' Novyi stil': Fasady gorodskikh domov (Petrograd, 1917). Strakun in fact published three volumes of facades under the title Novyi stil' (New style). I am indebted to John Bowlt for bringing this material to my attention.