1. See Ernst R. Curtius, European Literature and the Latin Middle Ages , trans. Willard R. Trask (New York: Pantheon, 1953), 515, 517. For an example

of medieval literary distance see Steven Shurtleff, "The Archpoet as Poet, Persona, and Self: The Problem of Individuality in the 'Confession,'" Philological Quarterly 73 (1994):373-84.

2. Salvian, Epistolae 9.3, 13-14.

3. Sulpicius Severus, Vita s. Martinii praef.

4. Gerhart B. Ladner, " Homo viator : Mediaeval Ideas of Alienation and Order," Speculum 42 (1967):237 n. 17.

5. Roger Dragonetti, Le mirage des sources: L'Art du faux dans le roman médiévale (Paris: Seuil, 1987), 17-55, esp. 45-48, citing Alain de Lille, De fide catholica 1.30. See also Paul Klopsch, "Anonymität und Selbstnennung mittellateinischer Autoren," Mittellateinisches Jahrbuch 4 (1967):9-25.

6. Evelyn Birge Vitz, Medieval Narrative and Modern Narratology: Subjects and Objects of Desire (New York: New York University Press, 1989), 2-3.

7. Dante, Vita nuova 40. For the semantics of peregrinación see Juergen Hahn, The Origins of the Baroque Concept of "peregrinatio" (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1973), 17-20, 28.

8. See Ladner, " Homo viator ," 237.

9. Donald Roy Howard, Writers and Pilgrims: Medieval Pilgrimage Narratives and Their Posterity (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1980), 85-87, 34. For recent study of Kempe as author see Diana R. Uhlman, "The Comfort of Voice: The Solace of Script: Orality and Literacy in The Book of Margery Kempe ," Studies in Philology 91(1994):50-69; Lynn Staley, Margery Kempe's Dissenting Fictions (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1994). For the genre in general see Paul Zumthor, "The Medieval Travel Narrative," trans. Catherine Peebles, New Literary History 25 (1994):809-24.

10. Anne Barton, The Names of Comedy (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1990), 153-54, citing Herodotus, Historiae 4. For a renaissance example see Marvin Spevack, "Beyond Individualism: Names and Namelessness in Shakespeare," Huntington Library Quarterly 56 (1993):383-98.

11. Acta 4.40.

12. Acta 5.52; 6.63.

13. See Peter Burke, The Historical Anthropology of Early Modern Italy: Essays on Perception and Communication (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 88, 92.

14. Acta 1-4.39, with last reference at 3.34.

15. Identified by Ignacio Iparraguire, S.J., and Candido de Dalmases, S.J., eds., Obras completas (Madrid: Biblioteca de autores cristianos, 1963), 106 n. 20.

16. See Gerardo López de Guereñu, Devoción popular en España a la Virgen blanca y a nuestra Señora de las nieves (Vitoria: Obra cultural de la caja de ahorras municipal de la ciudad de Vitoria, 1967), passim.

17. Robert L. Hathaway, "The Art of the Epic Epithets in the Cantar de mío Cid ," Hispanic Review 42 (1974):311-21; Thomas R. Hart, "The Rhetoric of (Epic) Fiction: Narrative Technique in the Cantar de mío Cid ," Philological Quarterly 51 (1972):23-35; Rita Hamilton, "Epic Epithets in the Poema de mío Cid ," Revue de littérature comparée 36 (1962):161-78; Edmund de Chasca, "El

epíteto,'' in El arte juglaresco en el "Cantar de mío Cid," (Madrid: Gredos, 1967), 173-93.

18. Marjorie O'Rourke Boyle, "The Prudential Augustine: The Virtuous Structure and Sense of his Confessions ," Recherches augustiniennes 22 (1987):137-49.

19. Augustine, Sermo 169.15, cited by Victorino Capágna, "Augustín, guía de peregrinos: Hacia una teología augustiniana de la peregrinación," Helmantica 26 (1975):73.

20. F. C. Gardiner, The Pilgrimage of Desire: A Study of Theme and Genre in Medieval Literature (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1971), 11-14, 53-85, 86-156. For the plays about Emmaus see also Julia Bolton Holloway, The Pilgrim and the Book: A Study of Dante, Langland, and Chaucer , American University Studies, ser. 4, 42 (New York: Peter Lang, 1987), 19-43. For Christ as a pilgrim see also Hahn, "Peregrinatio," 22, 29, 131-33.

21. Justo Pérez de Urbel, El claustro de Silos (Burgos: Aldecoa, 1930), 131-38, pls. at 133, 135, and reference to the Ripoll bible; Sixten Ringbom, "Some Pictorial Conventions for the Recounting of Thoughts and Experiences in Late Medieval Art," in Medieval Iconography and Narrative: A Symposium (Odense: Odense University Press, 1980), 50-51.

22. Barbara Nolan, The Gothic Visionary Perspective (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1977), 124-34.

23. Ibid., 136-39.

22. Barbara Nolan, The Gothic Visionary Perspective (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1977), 124-34.

23. Ibid., 136-39.

24. See Elisabeth MacDougall, " Ars hortulorum : Sixteenth-Century Garden Iconography and Literary Theory in Italy," in The Italian Garden: First Dumbarton Oaks Colloquium on the History of Landscape Architecture , ed. David R. Coffin (Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks, Trustees for Harvard University, 1972), 46, 50.

25. See A. Bartlett Giamatti, The Earthly Paradise and the Renaissance Epic (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1966), 39.

26. Dante, Convivio 2.14.

27. Guillaume de Deguileville, Pèlerinage de vie humaine 9-11, cited by Susan K. Hagen, Allegorical Remembrance: A Study of "The Pilgrimage of the Life of Man" as a Medieval Treatise on Seeing and Remembering (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1990), 51. See also the illustration of the Pilgrim in Bed and his Vision of Jerusalem in the Spanish translation by Vincente de Maçuelo in El pelerinage de la vida humana , 65, fig. 2. See also Steven Wright, "Deguileville's Pèlerinage de vie humaine as "contrepartie edifiante" of the Roman de la rose ," Philological Quarterly 68 (1987):399-422.

28. See Raoul de Houdenc, Songe d'enfer 1-7, cited by Nolan, Gothic Visionary Perspective , 153.

29. See Nolan, Gothic Visionary Perspective , 142-43.

30. Acta 3.35, 37.

31. Bernard of Clairvaux, De gradibus humilitatis et superbiae 22.56.

32. Erasmus, Ratio verae theologiae , pp. 178, 177, cited in Boyle, Erasmus on Language and Method in Theology , Erasmus Studies, 2 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1977), 66, 60.

33. Giovanni della Casa, Galateo 267; Galateo , trans. Konrad Eisenbichler

and Kenneth R. Bartlett, Reformation and Renaissance Texts in Translation, 2 (Toronto: Centre for Reformation and Renaissance Studies, 1986), 49.

34. Evagrius Ponticus, Logos praktikos 13, 30-33.

35. Augustine, Confessiones 10.36.59; 10.37.60, 62; trans. Vernon J. Bourke, Confessions (New York: Fathers of the Church, 1953), 317.

36. Fiore di virtù 30.

37. Leonardo da Vinci, "Studies on the Life and Habits of Animals" 1230 in Notebooks .

38. Erasmus, Colloquia , in Opera omnia (Amsterdam), 1-3:668; The Colloquies of Erasmus , trans. Craig R. Thompson (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965), 481.

39. Acta 3.30.

40. Voie de paradis 542.

41. Jean de Courcy, Chemin de vaillance , MS Royal 14.E.ii, cited by Siegfried Wenzel, "The Pilgrimage of Life as a Late Mediaeval Genre," Mediaeval Studies 35 (1973): 375.

42. Acta 1.9; 4.40.

43. Christian Zacher, Curiosity and Pilgrimage: The Literature of Discovery in Fourteenth-Century England (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1976), 4-5, 6, 16, 53. See also Giles Constable, "The Opposition to Pilgrimage in the Middle Ages," Studia gratiana 19 (1976):123-46.

44. Acta 3.36; cf. "Praefatio scriptoris" 1.

45. Romain Roussel, Le pèlerinage à travers les siècles (Paris: Payot, 1954), 30.

46. Acta 3.36.

47. Kenneth Hurlstone Jackson, A Celtic Miscellany: Translations from the Celtic Literature (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1951), 148, cited by Zacher, Curiosity and Pilgrimage , 55 n. 61; Jonathan Sumption, Pilgrimage: An Image of Mediaeval Religion (London: Faber & Faber, 1975), 96, and on Rome as not availing, 289-90. The original is in Thesaurus palaeohibernicus , 2:296, cited by Constable, "Opposition to Pilgrimage," 129.

48. Zacher, Curiosity and Pilgrimage , 54; J. G. Davies, Pilgrimage Yesterday and Today: Why? Where? How? (London: SCM, 1988), 85-86, 46; Sumption, Pilgrimage , 256-61.

49. Gaudenzio Boccazzi, "La curiosité du voyageur au XVIe siècle: Ou l'art d'apprendre et de se parfaire par les voyages," in La curiosité à la Renaissance , ed. Jean Céard (Paris: Société d'édition et d'enseignement supérieur, 1986), 49-62 on Rabelais and Montaigne.

50. Bartolomé Cairosco de Figueroa, "Peregrinación," cited by Hahn, " Peregrinatio ," 15.

51. Acta 4.38; 3.35-36.

52. Ibid. 2.13.

51. Acta 4.38; 3.35-36.

52. Ibid. 2.13.

53. See Sumption, Pilgrimage , 168.

54. Acta 3.19; 2.18; 3.35-36; 4.38-39; 4.40; 4.42; 4.42-43.

55. See Sumption, Pilgrimage , 185.

56. Acta 5.49, 50.

57. See Sumption, Pilgrimage , 208.

58. Acta 5.53; 6.54; 6.56; 6.57; 6.63; 8.73-75.

59. Raymond of Capua, Vita 1.4, in Acta sanctorum .

60. Acta 8.76-77; 8.84.

61. See Piero Boitani, Chaucer and the Imaginary World of Fame , Chaucer Studies, 10 (London: D. S. Brewer, 1984), 97-98, 131-34 passim.

62. Acta 9.87; 9.89; 9.90; 9.91; 10.93; 10.95; 11.100; "Deliberatio de paupertate."

63. Petrarch, Epistolae familiares 13.4.20, 23, 25.

64. Sumption, Pilgrimage , 122-25, citing "Veneranda dies" in Liber s. Jacobi 1.17; 208, 168, 265, 160.

65. Peter Burke, The Historical Anthropology of Early Modern Europe: Essays on Perception and Communication (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 72-73.

66. Acta 6.56.

67. Exercitia spiritualia , pp. 148, 260-62.

68. Lester K. Little, "Pride Goes before Avarice: Social Change and the Vices in Latin Christendom," American Historical Review 76 (1971):16-49.

69. Howard, The Three Temptations: Medieval Man in Search of the World (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1966), 54, citing at 45 Gregory the Great, Homiliae 1.16.2. Since medieval allegory was not empirically discrete, Christ's temptation to jump from the pinnacle of the temple not only could be related to vainglory, but also to avarice, as a curiosity about corporeal abilities, 50.

70. Origen, In Matthaeum 15.18.

71. Vita Antonii 40.

72. Exercitia spiritualia , p. 246.

73. Acta 4.38.

74. Jerome, Epistolae 22.25; Select Letters of St. Jerome , trans. F. A. Wright (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1933), 109.

75. Bernard of Clairvaux, De gradibus humilitatis et superbiae 10, cited by Zacher, Curiosity and Pilgrimage , 25. See also Ancrene Riwle 2. For a Spanish example of the rape of Dinah see detail, Pamplona bible, 12th century, Amiens, Bibliothèque municipale, MS lat. 108, fol. 20v; reproduced in Diane Wolfthal, "'A Hue and a Cry': Medieval Rape Imagery and Its Transformation," Art Bulletin 75 (1993):44, fig. 5.

76. Thomas J. Heffernan, Sacred Biography: Saints and Their Biographers in the Middle Ages (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988), 142.

77. See Guido Ruggiero, The Boundaries of Eros: Sex Crime and Sexuality in Renaissance Venice (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), 89-108, without reference to Loyola.

78. Ladner, " Homo viator ," 236 n. 14, citing Augustine, Sermo 14.4.6; 80.7; 177.2; 178.8; Tractatus in evangelium Iohannis 40.10; Gregory the Great, Moralia in Iob 8.54.92.

79. Acta 9.91.

80. Fabri, Evagatorium , 2:68-69.

81. See also the Hill of Virtue in Jan David, S.J., Veridicus christianus , Antwerp, 1601. Reproduced in Samuel Chew, The Pilgrimage of Life (New Haven,

Conn.: Yale University Press, 1962), fig. 138. Three men ascend on hands and knees, while a fourth tumbles down, a hill crowned with the seven virtues.

82. See Chew, Pilgrimage of Life , 147-48.

83. Howard Rollin Patch, The Other World According to Descriptions in Medieval Literature (New York: Octagon, 1970), 7-10, 34-35, passim.

84. Gregory the Great, Dialogi 4.37-38. For the bridge in Dante's pilgrimage see Theodore Silverstein, "Dante and the Legend of the Mi'raj: The Problem of Islamic Influence on the Christian Literature of the Otherworld," Journal of Near Eastern Studies 11 (1952):89-112, 187-97.

85. Acta 9.91.

86. Gregory the Great, Dialogi 4.37; Dialogues , trans. Odo John Zimmerman (New York: Fathers of the Church, 1959), 241.

87. Françoise Joukovsky, La gloire dans la poésie française et néolatine du XVIe siécle (Des rhétoriquers a Agrippa d'Aubigné) , Travaux d'humanisme et Renaissance, 102 (Geneva: Droz, 1969), 343-47.

88. Acta 4.42.

89. Detail of the Creation mosaics, 13th century, vestibule, S. Marco, Venice. Reproduced in Francis Klingender, Animals in Art and Thought to the End of the Middle Ages , ed. Evelyn Antal and John Harthan (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1971), 255, fig. 159.

90. Guillaume de Deguileville, Pèlerinage de vie humaine 19069-232, cited by Hagen, Allegorical Remembrance , 92-93. The pilgrim and the sea of the world, London, British Library, MS Cotton Tiberius A.7, fol. 52v, cf. fol. 58, reproduced, figs. 41, 42. Also reproduced from the Spanish translation by Vinçente de Maçuelo in Pelerinage de la vida humana , 309, fig. 12.

91. Holloway, Pilgrim and the Book , 61.

92. Augustine, Confessiones 7.5.7; trans. Bourke, 168. For other patristic literature on the topic see Hugo Rahner, Symbole der Kirche: Die Ekklesiologie der Väter (Salzburg: Muller, 1964), 239-564. For development of this topic see Boyle, "Cusanus at Sea: The Topicality of Illuminative Discourse," Journal of Religion 71 (1991):180-201.

93. Boyle, "Prudential Augustine," 137-41, 144-48. For the comparison of life to a voyage at sea see Campbell Bonner, "Desired Haven," Harvard Theological Review 34 (1941):49-67; and for the development of the topic, Boyle, "Cusanus at Sea."

94. Acta 4.43-44.

95. Fabri, Evagatorium , 1:144; Felix Fabri (Circa 1480-1483 A.D. ) trans. Aubrey Stewart, The Library of the Palestine Pilgrims' Text Society, vol. 7-10, 2 vols. in 4 (London, 1893-97), 1:160.

96. Acta 4.44.

97. John Demaray, The Invention of Dante's "Commedia" (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1974), 11-14.

98. Acta 4.44-45

99. See Holloway, Pilgrim and the Book , 129, 141, citing Mandeville's Travels , 71-72.

100. Acta 4.45; cf. Fabri, Evagatorium , 1:237.

101. Acta 4.45.

102. Roussel, Pèlerinages , 31-32.

103. Acta 4.47.

104. Fabri, Evagatorium , 1:64; trans. Stewart, 1:49.

105. Acta 4.47-48

106. Victor Turner and Edith Turner, Image and Pilgrimage in Christian Culture: Anthropological Perspectives (New York: Columbia University Press, 1978), 11.

107. For the Mount of Olives as the site of the ascension see among many sources Jerome, Epistolae 108.12.1; Fabri, Evagatorium , 1:387-89, cf. pp. 382-83.

108. See G. W. Pigman III, "Versions of Imitation in the Renaissance," Renaissance Quarterly 33 (1980):9-22.

109. Fabri, The Wanderings of Felix Fabri , 2 vols. (New York, 1975), 1:4, cited by Davies, Pilgrimage Yesterday and Today , 67.

110. Fabri, Evagatorium , 1:402-4.

111. Exercitia spiritualia , p. 372.

112. Paulinus of Nola, Epistolae 49.14; 31.4, cited by Sumption, Pilgrimage , 91; The Letters of Paulinus of Nola , trans. P. G. Walsh, Ancient Christian Writers, 35, 36, 2 vols. (Westminster, Md.: Newman, 1966; New York: Newman, 1967), 2:273, 129-30.

113. Jerome, Epistolae 47.2; 58.3, cited by Davies, Pilgrimage Yesterday and Today , 80; Epistolae 58.2, cited by Zacher, Curiosity and Pilgrimage , 54; Constable, "Opposition to Pilgrimage," 126.

114. Erasmus, Enchiridion militis christianae , in Opera omnia (Leiden), 5:38; The Handbook of the Christian Soldier , trans. Charles Fantazzi in The Collected Works of Erasmus (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1988), 66:82.

115. Pico della Mirandola, Oratio de dignitate hominis 11; The Renaissance Philosophy of Man , ed. and trans. Ernst Cassirer et al. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1948), 229.

116. Robert Southwell, S. J., Mary Magdalens Funeral Teares , p. 67. See in general Marjory E. Lange, Telling Tears in the English Renaissance , Studies in the History of Christian Thought, 70 (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1996).

117. Davies, Pilgrimage Yesterday and Today , 67.

118. Eugene F. Rice, Jr., Saint Jerome in the Renaissance , Johns Hopkins Symposia in Comparative History, 13 (Baltimore, Md.: John Hopkins University Press, 1985), 103-4, citing Laudivio, Vita beati Hieronymi , fol. 4v; Fabri, Evagatorium , 1:237-40.

119. Exercitia spiritualia , pp. 352-53.

120. St. Peter's Denial, mosaic, S. Apollinare nuovo, Ravenna. Rembrandt, St. Peter's Denial, Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam. Reproduced in E. H. Gombrich, "Action and Expression in Western Art," in Non-Verbal Communication , ed. R. A. Hinde (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972), 383, figs. 7a, 7b.

121. Fabri, Evagatorium , 1:261.

122. First published in 1560, but manuscript copies were widely circulating in Roman ecclesiastical circles by 1559, according to Mario Praz, "Robert

Southwell's 'Saint Peter's Complaint' and its Italian Source," Modern Language Review , 19 (1924):287.

123. For the poetry of tears see Terence Cave, Devotional Poetry in France, c. 1570-1613 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969), 249-66.

124. Nancy Pollard Brown, "The Structure of Southwell's 'Saint Peter's Complaint,'" Modern Language Review 61 (1966):3-11; Praz, "Southwell's 'Saint Peter's Complaint,'" 273-90.

125. Brown, "Structure of 'Saint Peter's Complaint,'" 5, citing G. J. Spykman, "Attrition and Contrition at the Council of Trent," Ph.D. diss., University of Amsterdam, 1955, 161, with reference to Canons and Decrees of the Sacred and Oecumenical Council of Trent 14.4.

126. Acta 6.54-57; 8.73.

127. Boyle, "Fools and Schools: Scholastic Dialectic, Humanist Rhetoric: from Anselm to Erasmus," Medievalia et humanistica 13 (1985):173-79.

128. See Howard, Three Temptations , 54-55.

129. Vergil, Aeneid 173-97, citing 180-3; Virgil , trans. H. Rushton Fairclough, 2 vols. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1947), 1:409.

130. Chaucer, House of Fame 1376-85.

131. Joukovsky, Gloire dans la poésie , 498-515, 601-5, citing at 603 Cesare Ripa, Iconologia, overo Descrittione dell'imagini universale cavate dall'antichità et da altri luggi (Rome: Gio. Giogliotti, 1593), p. 73; and see for glory as flight, Joukovsky, Gloire dans la poésie , 330-32. Chew, Pilgrimage of Life , 181-83, citing Bocace de la Genealogie des dieux (Paris: Verard, 1498), fol. Xiiv. For surveys of fame see Boitani, Chaucer and Fame ; Achatz Freiherr von Müller, " Gloria bona fama bonorum": Studien zur sittlichen Bedeutung des Ruhmes in der frühchristlichen und mittelalterlichen Welt , Historische Studien, 428 (Husum: Matthiesen, 1977).

132. Acta 1.10. Italics mine.

133. Acta 4.45, 47.

134. Acta 6.54; 4.41.

135. "Praefatio scriptoris" 3.

136. See Ernstpeter Ruhe, "'Les plumes du paon et le mouton assimile': Zum Problem der Originalität im Mittelalter," in Mittelalterbilder aus neuer Perspective: Diskussionsanstösse zu "amour courtois," Subjectivität in der Dichtung, und Strategien des Erzählens , ed. idem and Rudolf Behrens, Beiträge zur romanischen Philologie des Mittelalters, 14 (Munich: Wilhelm Fink, 1985), 194-209.

137. Epistolae 15; The Collected Works of Erasmus , trans. R. A. B. Mynors and D. F. S. Thomson (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1974), 1:20-21; cited in Boyle, Erasmus on Language and Method in Theology , 50.

138. Helen Nader, The Mendoza Family in the Spanish Renaissance, 1350 to 1550 (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1979), 138-39.

139. Acta 4.41.

140. See Sumption, Pilgrimage , 185-86.

141. Acta 4.41; 5.49; 5.51; 6.55. For stripping a man of his clothes as divesting him of honor see Thomas V. Cohen, "The Lay Liturgy of Affront in Sixteenth-Century Italy," Journal of Social History 25 (1992):857-62.

142. Fabri, Evagatorium , 2:475.

143. Acta 6.57; 6.59; 6.62; 7.64, citing Terence, Andria 635.

144. Acta 5.50; 8.84.

145. General examen, Constitutiones 2.3.44.

146. Exercitia spiritualia , pp. 294-98.

147. Acta 8.83. Cf. Raymond of Capua, Vita 2.4; 2.2; Fabri, Evagatorium , 1:246-47.

148. Acta 4.41-42, 43.

149. Fabri, Evagatorium , 1:114.

150. Quintilian, Institutiones oratoriae 8.6.67-68; 9.4.30; 9.4.44; 8.4.8; The "Institutio oratoria" of Quintilian , trans. H. E. Butler, 4 vols. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1933-1936), 3:267.

151. Acta 7.72; 5.51; 6.60; 7.67; 7.79.

152. Sumption, Pilgrimage , 67, 102.

153. Acta 7.71.

154. For the phenomenon see A. Y. Syrkin, "On the Behavior of the 'Fool for Christ's Sake,'" History of Religions 22 (1982):150-72.

155. Exercitia spiritualia , pp. 260-62.

156. Acta 7.65.

157. Aristotle, Rhetorica 1410a; The "Art" of Rhetoric , trans. John Henry Freese (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1926), 393.

158. David Summers, " Contrapposto : Style and Meaning in Renaissance Art," Art Bulletin 59 (1977):336-61, citing Aristotle, Rhetorica 1410a, and Leonardo da Vinci, Trattato della pintura 271.

159. Martin Luther, De servo arbitrio , p. 287, cited by Boyle, Rhetoric and Reform: Erasmus' Civil Dispute with Luther , Harvard Historical Monographs, 71 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1983), 46-47.

160. Acta 6.58-62; 7.64-71; 9.86; 10.93; 11.98.

161. Julio Caro Baroja, "Honour and Shame," in Honour and Shame: The Values of Mediterranean Society , ed. J. G. Peristiany (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966), 101-3.

162. Acta 6.59.

163. Cited by Julian Pitt-Rivers, "Honour and Social Status," in Honour and Shame , 35.

164. Acta 10.96.

165. Turner and Turner, Image and Pilgrimage , 11. The theological foundation of this book is not "orthodox Catholic," as stated, but Pelagian: "On the one hand, the believer is plied with graces by God; on the other, he continually exerts his free will by accepting [ sic ] or rejecting them," 30. See also Edmond-René Labande, " Ad limina : Le pèlerin médiéval au terme de sa démarche," in Mélanges offerts à René Crozet , ed. Pierre Gallais and Yves-Jean Riou, 2 vols. (Poitiers: Société d'études médiévales, 1966), 1:283-91.

166. Ephemeris , passim; Exercitia spiritualia , pp. 218-20.

167. See A. J. Vermeulen, The Semantic Development of "Gloria" in Early-Christian Latin , Latinitas christianorum primaeva, 12 (Nijmegen: Dekker & van de Vegt, 1956), 110-14; on virginity, 96-97, 99, 100.

168. Maurice Carrez, "La gloire de Dieu: Etude des diverses notions de glo-

ire dans les écrits de l'ancien testament et du judaisme," Lic. thesis, Faculté libre de théologie, Paris, 1957, 11, 13, 19, 197-98. See also idem, De la souffrance à la gloire: De la "doxa" dans la pensée paulinienne (Neuchatel: Delachaux & Niestlé, 1964); Mauritius Steinheimer, " Doxa tou Theou": Die "doxa tou Theou" in der römischen Liturgie , Münchener theologische Studien, 2, systematische Abteilung, 4, (Munich: Karl Zink, 1951), 33-59.

169. See G. Celio, Glory of the Cross. Reproduced in Howard Hibbard, " Ut picturae sermones : The First Painted Decorations of the Gesù," in Baroque Art: The Jesuit Contribution , ed. Rudolf Wittkower and Irma B. Jaffe (New York: Fordham University Press, 1976), pl. 26; Mary, queen of martyrs, and SS. Andrew, Peter, Paul, Catherine, and Stephen in martyrdom, pls. 18a-21b. The interpretation is mine. For glory as a winged goddess see Jourkovsky, Gloire dans la poésie , 601. Cf. the painting of Glory as a nude young girl on the ceiling at the Villa d'Este. Reproduced in David Coffin, The Villa d'Este at Tivoli , Princeton Monographs in Art and Archaeology, 34 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1960), 58-60 and fig. 72.

170. Vermeulen, Semantic Development of "Gloria," 54-95.

171. Acta 10.98-99.

172. Acta 12.101.

173. Exercitia spiritualia , e.g., pp. 200-2.

174. Acta 2.27; 4.44; 4.48; 11.98.

175. Acta 4.44.

176. For the equator see Dante, Purgatorio 4.79-84, and Demaray, Invention of Dante's "Commedia," 82.

177. Jerome, Epistolae 108.12.5. For the importance of symbolic baptism in the Jordan during pilgrimage, and as imitated at Compostela, see Sumption, Pilgrimage , 128-30. See also Exercitia spiritualia , pp. 254, 462.

178. Ambrose, "Splendor paternae gloriae" 3.5, Hymni and passim. See also Vermeulen, Semantic Development of "Gloria," 156-63; Franz J. Dolger, "Sol salutis": Gebet und Gesang im christlichen Altertum (1925, rpt.; Münster: Aschendorff, 1972), 379-410.

179. Speculum perfectionis 119, in The Little Flowers of St. Francis, The Mirror of Perfection, St. Bonaventure's Life of St. Francis , trans. Hugh McKay (New York: Dutton, 1910), 294. See Francis of Assisi, "Canticum fratris solis vel laudes creaturarum" 3-4.

180. Dante, Paradiso 23.28-39.

181. Boyle, Petrarch's Genius: Pentimento and Prophecy (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1991).

182. E.g. Richard of St. Victor, In Apocalypsim Joannis libri 1.4.

183. See Joukovsky, Gloire dans la poésie , 328-30, 347-63.

184. Acta 10.93

185. Stephen F. Ostrow, "The Sistine Chapel at S. Maria Maggiore: Sixtus V and the Art of the Counter Reformation," Ph.D. diss., Princeton University, 1987, 26; idem, Art and Spirituality in Counter-Reformation Rome: The Sistine and Pauline Chapels in S. Maria Maggiore (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996).

186. Acta 10.94

187. Francis Rapp, "Les pèlerinages dans la vie religieuse de l'occident médiéval au XIVe et XVe siècles," in Freddy Raphaël et al., Les pèlerinages de l'antiquité biblique et classique à l'occident médiéval (Paris: Paul Geuthner, 1973), 120-38.

188. See Demaray, Invention of Dante's "Commedia," 22, 86.

189. Jean Gagé, Apollon romain: Essai sur le culte d'Apollon et le développement du "ritus graecus" à Rome des origines à Auguste (Paris: E. de Boccard, 1955), esp. 426-27, 499-516, 585-94, 673-74.

190. Dolger, " Sol salutis ," esp. 336-79; idem, Die Sonne der Gerechtigkeit und der Schwarze: Eine Religionsgeschichtliche Studie zum Taufgelöbnis (1919; rpt. Münster: Aschendorff, 1970), esp. 100-41, citing at 2 Jerome, Commentariorum in Amos prophetam libri 3.6.14.

191. André Grabar, Early Christian Art: From the Rise of Christianity to the Death of Theodosius, trans. Stuart Gilbert and James Emmons (New York: Odyssey, 1968), 92-93.

192. Adolphe N. Didron, Christian Iconography: The History of Christian Art in the Middle Ages , trans. E. J. Millington, 2 vols. (New York: Frederick Ungar, 1965), 1:35.

193. Ibid., 80-81 and pl. 74; B. M. A. Ghetti et al., Esplorazioni sotto la confessione di S. Pietro in Vaticano , 2 vols. (Vatican City: n.p., 1951), 1:38-42. and pls. 10-12; Jocelyn Toynbee and John W. Perkins, The Shrine of St. Peter and the Vatican Excavations (London: Longmans, Green, 1957), 72-74, 116-17, pl. 32.

192. Adolphe N. Didron, Christian Iconography: The History of Christian Art in the Middle Ages , trans. E. J. Millington, 2 vols. (New York: Frederick Ungar, 1965), 1:35.

193. Ibid., 80-81 and pl. 74; B. M. A. Ghetti et al., Esplorazioni sotto la confessione di S. Pietro in Vaticano , 2 vols. (Vatican City: n.p., 1951), 1:38-42. and pls. 10-12; Jocelyn Toynbee and John W. Perkins, The Shrine of St. Peter and the Vatican Excavations (London: Longmans, Green, 1957), 72-74, 116-17, pl. 32.

194. Hans Henrik Brummer, The Statue Court in the Vatican Belvedere (Stockholm: Almquist & Wiksell, 1970), 222-26. For another Apolline image see the fresco in the second Tiburtine room in the Villa d'Este at Tivoli. Coffin, Villa d'Este at Tivoli , 63-64 and fig. 80. For the continuity of solar imagery later in the papacy of Pope Sixtus V (1585-90) see Corinne Mandel, "Starry Leo, the Sun, and the Astrological Foundations of Sixtine Rome," Revue d'art canadienne/Canadian Art Review 17 (1990):17-39.

195. Plato, Respublica 7.532; The Dialogues of Plato , trans. Benjamin Jowett, 2 vols. (New York: Random House, 1937), 1:791.

196. At Delphi the Pythia drank from the Castalian springs before uttering Apollo's oracles, and they became a sacred font of poetic and prophetic inspiration. Pierre Amandry, La mantique apollinienne à Delphes: Essai sur le fonctionnement de l'oracle (Paris: E. de Boccard, 1950), 134-39; and for the spring Cassotis, Georges Roux, Delphes: Son oracle et ses dieux (Paris: Belles lettres, 1976), 136-45. It was characteristic of the Apolline sanctuaries that all were important hydraulic installations. René Ginouves, Balaneutike: Recherches sur le bain dans l'antiquité grecque (Paris: E. de Boccard, 1962), 327-44.

197. Plato, Phaedo 99d-100a.

198. Exercitia spiritualia , p. 186.

199. See Louis Réau, L'iconographie de l'art chrétien , 6 vols. (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1955-59), 3-2:673; F. Werner in Lexikon der christlichen Ikonographie , ed. Engelbert Kirschbaum, 8 vols. (Rome: Herder, 1968-76), 6:569-71; Ricardo García Villoslada, in Biblioteca sanctorum , 12 vols.

(Rome: Istituto Giovanni XXIII nella Pontificia università lateranense, 1961-68), 6:674-705.

200. See Adolf Katzenzellenbogen, Allegories of the Virtues and Vices in Mediaeval Art: From Early Christian Times to the Thirteenth Century (London: Warburg Institute, 1939), 55.

201. Herrad of Hohenbourg, Hortus deliciarum , fol. 201v, pl. 114.

202. See Réau, Iconographie de l'art chrétien , 3-2:673; Lexikon der christlichen Ikonographie , 6:569-71; Biblioteca sanctorum , 6:702.

203. Chew, Pilgrimage of Life , 251-52, citing its reproduction in René Fülöp-Miller, The Power and Secret of the Jesuits , trans. F. S. Flint and D. F. Tait (London: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1930), pl. 8. The description of the engraving is mine, for the peacock has been overlooked. On peacocks and vainglory see also Chew, Pilgrimage of Life , 82-83, 93, 95-98.

204. Reproduced in Joseph M. Gasol, Manresa: Panorama d'una ciutat (Manresa: Montañà, 1971), 49. Also reproduced from J. de Mesa/A. Collaert, Vita beati patris Ignatii (Antwerp: C. Galle, 1610), nr. 3 in Ursula König-Nordhoff, Ignatius von Loyola: Studien zur Entwicklung einer neuen Heiligen-Ikonographie im Rhamen einer Kanonisationskampagne um 1600 (Berlin: Gebr. Mann, 1982), Abb. 85.

205. Cornelius I. Galle, Ignatius in solitude tormented by serpents, Etterbeek, Biblioteca della Società dei P. P. Bollandisti, 17th century. Reproduced in Biblioteca sanctorum , 7:683. Also reproduced from Rubens/Barbé, Vita beati p. Ignatii (Rome, 1609), nr. 12 in König-Nordhoff, Ignatius von Loyola , Abb. 411. See also Abb. 432 and 520, in which the snake has a woman's head, while Loyola in Jesuit garb grips a rosary and a staff--the attibutes of St. Anthony the hermit in Matthias Grünewald's painting for the Isenheim altar--but without anguish. In Abb. 521 and 522 the serpent is an ordinary snake.

206. Several scenes of Mary thus appearing to him in a grotto were portrayed. Gerard Seghers, Vision of St. Ignatius of Loyola, Wallraf-Richartz Museum, Cologne. Reproduced in Horst Vey, "Gerard Seghers: A Vision of St. Ignatius Loyola during the Writing of the Rules of the Jesuits," Master Drawings , 2 (1964):pl. 17 and see 268-71. Gerard Seghers, Tableau painted for the Jesuit College at Gand, engraved by Schelte at Bolswert; Jeronimo Espinosa, 1653, Provincial Museum, Valencia; Valdès Leal, 1674, Provincial Museum, Seville. Réau, Iconographie de l'art chrétien , 3-2:675.

207. Quintilian, Institutiones oratoriae 5.10.20, 21-22; trans. Bulter, 2:213.

208. See David Carrasco, Quetzalcoatl and the Irony of Empire (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982), 60; as morning star, 30-32, and other celestial phenomena. Carrasco does not consider Pettazoni's fundamental research.

209. Exercitia spiritualia , p. 194.

210. For the classical comparison see Michael O'Loughlin, The Garlands of Repose: The Literary Celebration of Civic and Retired Leisure: The Traditions of Homer and Vergil, Horace and Montaigne (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978), 87-88.

211. Acta 10.99.

212. Cicero, De oratore 2.39.162.

213. Quintilian, Institutiones oratoriae 7.10.14-15, trans. Butler, 3:171; 8. pr.28-30, trans., 193.

214. See Michael Baxandall, Painting and Experience in Fifteenth-Century Italy: A Primer in the Social History of Pictorial Style , 2d ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988), 145-47, citing Leon Battista Alberti, De pictura .

215. Summers, Michelangelo and the Language of Art (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1981), 60-64.

216. Walter Kaiser, Praisers of Folly: Erasmus, Rabelais, Shakespeare (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1963), 3.

217. Deguileville, Pèlerinage de vie humaine 22510-18, cited in Hagen, Allegorical Remembrance , 110.

218. Augustine, De civitate Dei 11.23; The City of God , trans. Gerald G. Walsh and Grace Monahan (Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press, 1952), 222.

219. Anne Bradstreet, ''The Author to her Book."