1. Judy Scales Trent, "Black Women and the Constitution: Finding Our Place, Asserting Our Rights," Harvard Civil Rights-Civil Liberties Law Review 24 (1989): 10, 12.

2. Kimberle Williams Crenshaw, "Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex: A Black Feminist Critique of Antidiscrimination Doctrine, Feminist Theory and Antiracist Politics," University of Chicago Legal Forum (1989), pp. 140, 143. She discusses three key cases that deny the intersectionality of black women: DeGraffenreid v. General Motors, 413 F. Supp. 142 (E.D. Mo. 1976); Moore v. Hughes Helicopter, 708 F. 2d 475 (9th Cir. 1983); and Payne v. Travenol, 673 F. 2d 798 (5th Cir. 1982).

3. Peggie R. Smith, "Separate Identities: Black Women, Work, and Title VII," Harvard Women's Law Journal 14 (Spring 1991): 22, 31.

4. Mae Gwendolyn Henderson, "Speaking in Tongues: Dialogics, Dialectics, and the Black Woman Writer's Literary Tradition," in Reading Black, Reading Feminist, ed. Henry Louis Gates, Jr. (New York: Meridian Book, 1990), pp. 116-17. Also see Teresa de Lauretis, Technologies of Gender (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987), p. 2.

5. For classic discussions of radical feminism, see Ti Grace Atkinson, Amazon Odyssey (New York: Links, 1974); Shulamith Firestone, The Dialectic of Sex (New York: Bantam, 1970); Kate Millett, Sexual Politics (New York: Dou-

bleday, 1970); Robin Morgan, ed., Sisterhood Is Powerful (New York: Vintage, 1970); and Redstockings, Feminist Revolution (New York: Redstockings, 1975).

6. Carol Brown, "Mothers, Fathers, and Children: From Private to Public Patriarchy," in Women and Revolution, ed. Lydia Sargent (Boston: South End Press, 1981), pp. 239-68.

7. For interesting discussions of redefining the personal as political, see Carpignano et al., "Chatter in the Age of Electronic Reproduction," pp. 33-55; and Nancy Fraser, "Rethinking the Public Sphere." Also see Ian Angus and Sut Jhally, eds., Cultural Politics in Contemporary America (New York: Routledge, 1989).

8. Patricia Hill Collins, "The Emerging Theory and Pedagogy of Black Women's Studies," Feminist Issues 6, no. 1 (Spring 1986): 9.

9. Aida Hurtado, "Relating to Privilege: Seduction and Rejection in the Subordination of White Women and Women of Color," Signs 14, no. 4 (Summer 1989): 849-50.

10. See, e.g., Barbara Smith, "Home," in Home Girls: A Black Feminist Anthology, ed. Barbara Smith (New York: Kitchen Table Women of Color Press, 1983), pp. 64-72.

11. Hurtado, "Relating to Privilege," p. 851.

12. Mervat Hatem, "The Enduring Alliance of Nationalism and Patriarchy in Muslim Personal Status Laws: The Case of Modern Egypt," Feminist Issues 6, no. 1 (Spring 1986): 28.

13. As quoted in Jane Perlez, "Elite Kenyan Women Avoid a Rite: Marriage," New York Times, 3 Mar. 1991, p. A14.

14. Diana E. H. Russell, Lives of Courage: Women for a New South Africa (New York: Basic Books, 1989), pp. 228, 249, 306, 263.

15. Rhonda Copelon, "From Privacy to Autonomy: The Conditions for Sexual and Reproductive Freedom," in From Abortion to Reproductive Freedom: Transforming a Movement, ed. Marlene Gerber Fried (Boston: South End press, 1990), p. 33.

16. Henderson, "Speaking in Tongues," p. 18.

17. Elizabeth Weed, ed., Coming to Terms: Feminism, Theory, Politics (New York: Routledge, 1989), p. xii.

18. Patricia J. Williams, The Alchemy of Race and Rights (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1991), pp. 152, 154, 159.

19. Kimberle Williams Crenshaw, "Race, Reform, and Retrenchment: Transformation and Legitimation in Antidiscrimination Law," Harvard Law Review 101, no. 7 (May 1988): 2346, 1357.

20. Williams, Alchemy of Race and Rights, p. 164-65.

21. Ibid., p. 165; Williams is quoting from Christopher Stone, "Should Trees Have Standing?—Toward Legal Rights for Natural Objects," Southern California Law Review 45 (1972): 453, 455.

22. Williams, Alchemy of Race and Rights, p. 184.

23. Byllye Avery, "Empowerment through Wellness," Yale Journal of Law and Feminism 4 (Fall 1991): 151.

24. Williams, Alchemy of Race and Rights, pp. 103, 102.

25. See bell hooks, "Theory as Liberatory Practice," Yale Journal of Law and Feminism 4 (Fall 1991): 1.

26. Hazel V. Carby, Reconstructing Womanhood: The Emergence of the Afro-American Woman Novelist (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), pp. 6, 19.

27. Adrienne Rich, "Notes Toward a Politics of Location (1984)," in her Blood, Bread, and Poetry: Selected Prose 1979-1986 (New York: Norton, 1986), p. 219.

28. Evelyn Brooks-Higginbotham, "The Problem of Race in Women's History," in Weed, Coming to Terms, p. 125.

29. Barbara Christian, "The Race for Theory," Feminist Studies 14, no. 1 (Spring 1988): 74, 73. For a different understanding of postmodernism and the problem of racism, see Howard Winant, "Postmodern Racial Politics: Difference and Inequality," Socialist Review 10, no. 1 (Jan.-Mar. 1990): 121-50.

30. June Jordan, as stated in an interview, "Voices of Change: The State of the Art," Women's Review of Books 7, no. 5 (Feb. 1991): 24.

31. See, e.g., several of the articles in Weed, Coming to Terms . See also Kathleen Barry, "Deconstructing Deconstructionism (Or, Whatever Happened to Feminist Studies?)," Ms. 1, no. 4 (Jan.-Feb. 1991): 83-85, for a highly critical discussion of postmodern feminism.

32. Judith Butler, "Gender Trouble, Feminist Theory, and Psychoanalytic Discourse," in Feminism/Postmodernism, ed. Linda Nicholson (New York: Routledge, 1990), pp. 324-40; and Judith Butler, Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity (New York: Routledge, 1990).

33. Wendy Brown, "Feminist Hesitations, Postmodern Exposures," differences 3, no. 1 (Spring 1991): 68, 73.

34. Angela Harris, "Race and Essentialism in Feminist Legal Theory," Stanford Law Review 42 (Feb. 1990): 585.

35. Bernice Johnson Reagon, "Coalition Politics: Turning the Century," in Home Girls: A Black Feminist Anthology, ed. Barbara Smith (New York: Kitchen Table Women of Color Press, 1983), pp. 361, 363.

36. Susan Bordo, " 'Material' Girl: The Effacements of Postmodern Culture," Michigan Quarterly Review 29, no. 4 (Fall 1990): 662, 664.

37. Susan Bordo, "Feminism, Postmodernism, and Gender-Scepticism," in Nicholson, Feminism/Postmodernism, p. 141.

38. See especially bell hooks, Talking Back: Thinking Feminist, Thinking Black (Boston: South End Press, 1989). Also see bell hooks, Black Looks, Race and Representation (Boston: South End Press, 1992); and bell hooks and Cornel West, Breaking Bread, Insurgent Black Intellectual Life (Boston: South End Press, 1991).

39. Audre Lorde, "Age, Race, Class, and Sex: Women Redefining Difference," in Out There: Marginalization and Contemporary Cultures, ed. Russell Ferguson, Martha Gever, Trinh T. Minh-ha, Cornel West (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1990), p. 285. For interesting and related discussions of the concept difference, see Carol Lee Bacchi, Same Difference: Feminism and Sexual Difference (Boston: Allen & Unwin, 1990); Zillah Eisenstein, The Female Body and

the Law; and Iris Marion Young, Justice and the Politics of Difference (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1990).

40. Gloria I. Joseph and Jill Lewis, Common Differences: Conflicts in Black and White Feminist Perspectives (Boston: South End Press, 1981; New York: Doubleday, 1986).

41. Catherine MacKinnon, "From Practice to Theory, or What is a White Woman Anyway?" Yale Journal of Law and Feminism 4 (Fall 1991): 20.

42. Denise Riley, Am I That Name? Feminism and the Category of 'Women' in History (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota, 1988), pp. 1, 112. Also see Johnnetta B. Cole, ed., All American Women: Lines That Divide, Ties That Bind (New York: The Free Press, 1986).

43. A few representative white feminists who address the issue of racism are Marilyn Frye, The Politics of Reality (Trumansburg, NY: Crossing Press, 1983); Ann Ferguson, Sexual Democracy: Women, Oppression, and Revolution (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1991); Minnie Bruce Pratt, "Identity: Skin Blood Heart," in Elly Bulkin, Minnie Bruce Pratt, and Barbara Smith, Yours in Struggle: Three Feminist Perspectives on Anti-Semitism and Racism (Brooklyn, NY: Long Haul Press, 1984); Adrienne Rich, "Disloyal to Civilization: Feminism, Racism and Gynephobia," in her Lies, Secrets, and Silence (New York: Norton, 1979); and Elizabeth V. Spelman, Inessential Woman: Problems of Exclusion in Feminist Thought (Boston: Beacon Press, 1988).

44. For a discussion of white solipsism, see Rich, "Disloyal to Civilization."

45. Susan Willis, Specifying: Black Women Writing the American Experience (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1987).

46. Marianne Hirsch and Evelyn Fox Keller, in Conflicts in Feminism (New York: Routledge, 1990), p. 2, choose to reject the term feminisms as no improvement over the term feminism . It merely multiplies the problems contained in its original form.

47. See bell hooks, Feminist Theory: From Margin to Center (Boston: South End Press, 1984), p. 30.

48. Hooks, Talking Back, pp. 182, 105, 105.

49. See bell hooks, Ain't I A Woman: Black Women and Feminism (Boston: South End Press, 1981), p. 194.

50. Hooks, Talking Back, p. 180.

51. Barbara Smith, Introduction to Home Girls, p. xxiii. Also see Combahee River Collective, "The Combahee River Collective Statement," Home Girls, pp. 272-82; and Gloria T. Hull, Patricia Bell Scott, and Barbara Smith, eds., All the Women Are White, All the Blacks Are Men, But Some of Us Are Brave (New York: Feminist Press, 1982).

52. Barbara Smith, "Toward a Black Feminist Criticism," in Hull, Scott, and Smith, eds., All the Women Are White, p. 162.

53. June Jordan, On Call: Political Essays (Boston: South End Press, 1985), p. 38.

54. Chandra Talpade Mohanty, "Introduction: Cartographies of Struggle: Third World Women and the Politics of Feminism," in Third World Women and the Politics of Feminism, ed. Chandra Talpade Mohanty, Ann Russo, and

Lourdes Torres (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991), p. 4. Also see Chandra Talpade Mohanty, "Under Western Eyes: Feminist Scholarship and Colonial Discourses," also in Mohanty, Russo, and Torres, eds., Third World Women . For an interesting discussion of the complicated meanings of essentialism, see Diana Fuss, Essentially Speaking: Feminism, Nature and Difference (New York: Routledge, 1989).

55. Cheryl Johnson-Odim, "Common Themes, Different Contexts: Third World Women and Feminism," in Mohanty, Russo, and Torres, eds., Third World Women, Feminism, pp. 316, 325.

56. Alice Walker, In Search of Our Mothers' Gardens (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1983), p. xi.

57. Gloria Anzaldúa, "An Introduction: Haciendo caras, una entrada," in Making Face, Making Soul: Creative and Critical Perspectives by Women of Color, ed. Gloria Anzaldúa (San Francisco: Aunt Lute, 1990), pp. xxi, xxv, xxvi. Also see Cherrie Moraga and Gloria Anzaldúa, eds., This Bridge Called My Back (Watertown, Mass.: Persephone Press, 1981).

58. Uma Narayan, "The Project of Feminist Epistemology: Perspectives from a Non-Western Feminist," in Gender/Body/Knowledge: Feminist Reconstructions of Being and Knowing, ed. Alison M. Jaggar and Susan R. Bordo (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1989), p. 259.

59. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, In Other Worlds: Essays in Cultural Politics (New York: Routledge, 1988), pp. 151, 152, 208.

60. Susan Willis, Specifying, p. 16.

61. Patricia Hill Collins, Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics of Empowerment (Boston: Unwin Hyman, 1990), p. 202.

62. See Lisa Belklin, "Bars to Equality of Sexes Seen as Eroding Slowly," New York Times, 20 Aug. 1989, p. A26.

63. An interesting study of teenage girls by Carol Gilligan raises the question of whether the impact of strong black women on black teenage girls may explain why black teenage girls appear often to have higher self-esteem than white teenage girls. See Suzanne Daley, "Little Girls Lose Their Self-Esteem on Way to Adolescence, Study Finds," New York Times, 9 Jan. 1991, p. B6.

64. Trinh T. Minh-ha, Woman, Native, Other (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1989), p. 2. For a more particular historical discussion of the process of specifying feminism, see Aihwa Ong, Spirits of Resistance and Capitalist Discipline: Factory Women in Malaysia (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1987).

65. Evelyn Brooks-Higginbotham, "African-American Women's History and the Metalanguage of Race," Signs 17, no. 2 (Winter 1992): 255, 257-58.

66. Rosemary L. Bray, "Taking Sides Against Ourselves," New York Times Magazine, 17 Nov. 1991, p. 94.

67. Joan Morgan, "A Blackwoman's Guide to the Tyson Trial," Village Voice 37 no. 9 (3 March 1992): 40. Also see Anita Hill et al., "The Nature of the Beast," Ms. 11, no. 4 (Jan./Feb. 1992): 32-45.

68. Teresa de Lauretis, "Eccentric Subjects: Feminist Theory and Historical Consciousness," Feminist Studies 16, no. 1 (Spring 1990): 134.

69. See the collection Reading Black, Reading Feminist, ed. Henry Louis

Gates, Jr. (New York: Meridian, 1990), especially the Introduction, p. 8, for a discussion of the plural and racialized voices of women of color.

70. Mohanty, "Introduction," pp. 13, 7, 4.

71. Valerie Smith, "Loopholes of Retreat: Architecture and Ideology in Harriet Jacob's 'Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl,' " in Gates, ed., Reading Black, Reading Feminist, pp. 212-226.

72. Judy Scales-Trent, "Commonalities: On Being Black and White, Different and the Same," Yale Journal of Law and Feminism 3, no. 2 (Spring 1990): 305, 316, 324.

73. Patricia Williams, Alchemy of Race and Rights, p. 125.

74. Trinh T. Minh-ha, "Not You/Like You: Post-Colonial Women and the Interlocking Questions of Identity and Difference," in Anzaldúa, ed., Making Face, Making Soul, p. 372.

75. Belkin, "Bars to Equality of Sexes," p. A26.

76. Pat Parker, "for the white person who wants to know how to be my friend," in Anzaldúa, ed., Making Face, Making Soul, p. 297.

77. Audre Lorde, "The Master's Tools Will Never Dismantle the Master's House," in Moraga and Anzaldúa, eds., This Bridge Called My Back, p. 99.

78. Carby, Reconstructing Womanhood, p. 53.

79. See Michele Barrett and Mary McIntosh, "Ethnocentrism and Socialist Feminist Theory," Feminist Review 20 (Summer 1985): 18-41. See also the responses by Caroline Ramazanoglu, "Ethnocentrism and Socialist-Feminist Theory: A Response to Barrett and McIntosh," pp. 83-86; and Hamida Kazi, "The Beginning of a Debate Long Due: Some Observations on 'Ethnocentrism and Socialist-Feminist Theory,' "pp. 87-91; both in Feminist Review 22 (Spring 1986).

80. See Carby, Reconstructing Womanhood, p. 20.

81. Angela Davis, "Reflections on the Black Woman's Role in the Community of Slaves," Black Scholar 3, no. 4 (Dec. 1971): 3-15; and her Women, Race and Class (New York: Random House, 1981).

82. Jacqueline Berrien, "Pregnancy and Drug Use: The Dangerous and Unequal Use of Punitive Measures," Yale Journal of Law and Feminism 2 (Spring 1990): 239-250.

83. E. Frances White, "Listening to the Voices of Black Feminism," Radical America 18, nos. 2-3 (1984): 7-26.

84. See Marian Wright Edelman, "The Black Family in America," in The Black Women's Health Book: Speaking for Ourselves, ed. Evelyn C. White (Seattle, Washington: The Seal Press, 1990), pp. 128-50; Angela Davis, Women, Culture, Politics (New York: Vintage Press, 1990); "Scapegoating the Black Family: Black Women Speak," special issue, Nation 249, no. 4 (24 July 1989); and Daniel Patrick Moynihan, "Another War—The One on Poverty—Is Over, Too," New York Times, 16 July 1990, p. A15. For an interesting discussion of the politics of motherhood of black women, see Eileen Boris, "The Power of Motherhood: Black and White Activist Women Redefine the 'Political,' '' Yale Journal of Law and Feminism 2 (Fall 1988): 25-50.

85. Alisa Solomon, "The Politics of Breast Cancer," Village Voice 36, no. 20 (14 May 1991): 22-27. Also see White, ed., Black Women's Health Book;

and Audre Lorde, The Cancer Journal (San Francisco: Spinster's/Aunt Lute, 1980).

86. Crenshaw, "Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex," p. 140.

87. Lynnell Hancock, "Ujamaa Means Controversy," Village Voice 35, no. 45 (6 Nov. 1990): 14. Also see Joseph Berger, "New York Panel Backs School for Minority Men," New York Times, 10 Jan. 1991, p. A1; Dirk Johnson, ''Milwaukee Creating Two Schools Just for Black Boys," New York Times, 30 Sept. 1990, p. A1; Felicia Lee, "Black Men: Are They Imperiled?" New York Times, 26 June 1990, p. B3; Helen R. Neuborne, "Girls Are Drowning, Too," New York Times, 16 Aug. 1991, p. A23; and Isabel Wilkerson, ''To Save Its Men, Detroit Plans Boys-Only Schools," New York Times, 14 Aug. 1991, p. A1.

88. For a much fuller discussion of bodily diversity and the need for reproductive rights, see Eisenstein, Female Body and the Law .

89. See Carby, Reconstructing Womanhood; Moraga and Anzaldúa, eds., This Bridge Called My Back; Chandra Talpade Mohanty, "Feminist Encounters, Locating the Politics of Experience," Copyright 1 (Fall 1987): 30-44; and Willis, Specifying .

90. See Charlotte Rutherford, "Reproductive Freedoms and African American Women," Yale Journal of Law and Feminism 4 (Spring 1992): 255-90.

91. National Black Women's Health Project, 1237 Gordon Street SW, Atlanta, GA 30310; and National Institute for Women of Color, 1301 20th St. NW, Washington, D.C. 20036.

92. Alisa Solomon, "Identity Crisis: Queer Politics in the Age of Possibilities," Village Voice 37, no. 26 (30 June 1992): 27-33.

93. Ellen Willis, "Shaky Ground: The Abortion Fight, Take Two," Village Voice 34, no. 29 (18 July 1989), p. 14.

94. See letter from the National Latina Health Organization to NOW, 31 March 1992. Available from: P.O. Box 7567, 1900 Fruitvale Avenue, Oakland, CA 94601.

95. See "Who's Sorry NOW? Women of Color Protest Pro-Choice March," Ms. 3, no. 1 (July/Aug. 1992): 88-89; and Catherine Manegold, "The Battle over Choice Obscures Other Vital Concerns of Women," New York Times, 2 August 1992, p. E1.

96. See "The National Conference Resolutions," National NOW Times 24, no. 6 (Aug. 1992): 12.