1. Young, Presidency , 241-42.

2. Chün-tu Hsüeh, "A Chinese Democrat: The Life of Sung Chiaojen," in Revolutionary Leaders of Modern China , ed. Chün-tu Hsüeh (New York: Oxford University Press, 1971), 261-66.

3. Tao Juyin, Beiyang junfa , 1: 149-50.

4. Hsüeh, "Chinese Democrat," 263-66; Young, "Politics," 219.

5. Young, Presidency , 123-29.

6. Charles Tilly, Coercion, Capital, and European States, A.D. 990 - 1990 (Cambridge, Mass.: Basil Blackwell, 1990), 203-25.

7. Li Yuanhong, Li fuzongtong , 18: 8b-9a, 20: 2a-3b, 15a-16a; Shibao , May 7, 16, and 22, 1913.

8. Shibao , May 18 and June 4, 1913; Li Yuanhong, Li fuzongtong , 21: 6b-8a.

9. Young, Presidency , 130; Shibao , May 7, 11, 13, 16, 21, and 31, 1913.

10. Sutton, Provincial Militarism , 148-49.

11. Shibao , July 18, 1913.

12. Shibao , Apr. 10-12, 1913. The declared goals of this plot were to "reform Hubei's government and continue the work of the revolution." According to one participant, the plotters did not agree on the need to overthrow Li. Li, however, could not but see the plot as a threat. Guo Jisheng, 99-100.

13. The persistence of revolutionary activity, and Li's suppression of it, can be seen in frequent reports in the Shibao from May through August 1913.

14. Wen Chuheng, 59; Shibao , July 2, 1913; GMWX, 44: 396-415. Accounts of local uprisings in Hubei in June and July can be found in XGHSX, 697-700. The only uprising of any strength involved remnants of Ji Yulin's 8th Division and other disbanded troops at Shayang in late July. Even this uprising was quickly suppressed. Shibao , July 30, Aug. 3 and 11, 1913.

15. Shibao , May 22, 1913.

16. Shibao , May 22 and 25, 1913.

17. Liu Pengfo, 98-99; GMWX, 44: 329-30, 332-33.

18. Wen Chuheng, 61.

19. USDS 893.00/1901 (Greene, Aug. 1, 1913).

20. Li Yuanhong, Li dazongtong zhengshu [The official correspondence of President Li] (Shanghai: Yayi shuju, 1916), 26: 3a. break

21. Contrast the anti-Tan interpretation in Li Shiyue, 121-22, with Tao Juyin, Beiyang junfa , 1: 206. Li Shiyue and many other secondary works incorrectly locate Li's report to Yuan in Li fuzongtong zhengshu instead of Li dazongtong zhengshu .

22. Cheng Qian, "Xinhai geming," 91.

23. According to some accounts Zhao opposed Hunan's independence, and deliberately slowed his advance into Hubei. Li Yuanhong later sought to mitigate Zhao's punishment by substantiating this claim. Shibao , Aug. 21 and 22, Dec. 22, 1913.

24. Tao Juyin, Beiyang junfa , 1: 189-191. After Huang's departure there was a second declaration of independence by Nanjing revolutionaries, who held out until September.

25. Cheng Qian, "Xinhai geming," 92-93; Shibao , Sept. 10, 1913.

26. Wen Chuheng, 59.

27. Central China Post , July 26, 1913, enclosed in USDS 893.00/1846 (Greene, July 28, 1913).

28. Shibao , May, 16, 25, 26, and 28, 1913; USDS 893.00/1845.

29. Tao Juyin, Beiyang junfa , 2: 4-6.

30. Ibid., 2: 7-21.

29. Tao Juyin, Beiyang junfa , 2: 4-6.

30. Ibid., 2: 7-21.

31. Li Yuanhong, Li dazongtong , 26: 3a; Li Yuanhong, Li fuzongtong , 20: 10b-11b, 26: 8b-9a, 32: 4b-5a; Shibao , Aug. 24 and Sept. 15, 1913; USDS 893.00/1930 (Remillard, Aug. 31, 1913).

32. Ou Jinlin, 7-8; Cheng Qian, "Xinhai geming," 93; Shibao , Sept. 13, 22, and 23, 1913.

33. GMWX, 44: 488; USDS 893.00/1889 (Williams, Aug. 22, 1913); Shibao , Sept. 6 and 13, Oct. 15, 1913.

34. USDS 893.00/1954 (Jameson, Sept. 10, 1913); Shibao , Sept. 5, 13, and 30, Oct 14, 1913.

35. Shibao , Oct. 27, 1913; Tao Juyin, "Ji Tan Yankai," 94. Tan was sentenced to imprisonment by a military court but was soon pardoned by Yuan on Li Yuanhong's recommendation.

36. He Juefei, 2: 603-6, 635-36.

37. Shibao , Nov. 3, 1913; Tao Juyin, Beiyang junfa , 1: 205-6.

38. Shibao , July 31 and Aug. 4, 1913.

39. Li Yuanhong, Li fuzongtong , 33: 18a, 19a-20a; Shibao , Nov. 13, 19, and 22, 1913; Hunan gongbao , Dec. 16, 1913.

40. Shibao , Dec. 10-13 and Dec. 17, 1913; Li Yuanhong, Li fuzongtong , 34: 7b-8a.

41. Shibao , Feb. 4, 1914.

42. USDS 893.00/1915 (Jameson, Aug. 30, 1913), 893.00/1954 (Jameson, Sept. 10, 1913). Liu Cuochen, Ezhou canji [Hubei's tragic record] (n.p., 1922), 1.

43. The mixed brigade was originally designated the 2d Mixed Brigade, but this was changed to the 6th Mixed Brigade in late 1914. continue

Prior to this appointment, Wang Jinjing was the 3d Brigade commander of the 2d Division. Hubei gongbao , Jan. 13, 1914; Shibao , May 11, June 9, and Aug. 12, 1914. Zhiyuanlu [Register of Officials] (Beijing: Yinzhuju), 1913, no. 1: lujun guanzuo 5; 1914, no. 1: lujun guanzuo 5; 1914, no. 4: lujun guanzuo 33.

44. Shibao , Sept. 19 and 30, 1913, Jan. 1, Apr. 26 and 27, 1914.

45. Shibao , Sept 10, 1914, Jan. 13, 1916. In August 1914, Wu was also appointed National 4th Mixed Brigade commander ending his subordination to the Fengtian 20th Division. Shibao , Aug. 12, 1914.

46. Shibao , Feb. 1 and Aug. 2, 1914.

47. Wang Xueqian, commander of the 3d Division's 5th Brigade, took over as acting South Hunan garrison commander in early 1915. Zhiyuanlu , 1915, no. 1: lujun guanzuo 46.

48. Shibao , Sept. 11, Dec. 12 and 20, 1913.

49. Shibao , Jan. 1 and 30, Feb. 5, 1914.

50. Shibao , Feb. 25 and June 9, 1914. Shi Xingchuan, formerly Hubei 1st Brigade commander, had replaced Tang Keming as commander of the Hubei 1st Division in June 1913. Shibao , June 16, 1913.

51. Wan Yaohuang, oral history, sections 2, 9.

52. Shibao , July 21, Aug. 11 and 31, 1913, May 6, 1915.

53. Shibao , Apr. 26, 1914, Jan. 15, 1915. In becoming Jingzhou garrison commander, Li Tiancai replaced another man, Ding Huai, previously appointed to this post in May 1913. Ding does not seem to have had troops of his own; rather, he had loose authority over various units, including Li Tiancai's division. Shibao , May 6, Aug. 9 and 10, 1913.

54. Shibao , May 3 and 6, 1915, Jan. 28, 1916. In Hubei at this time, "national" units were paid in hard currency while Hubei forces were paid in devalued paper currency. Shibao , Jan. 16, 1916.

55. Shibao , Aug. 29, 1915; He Juefei, 2: 654.

56. Shibao , Jan. 15, 1914.

57. Cheng Qian, "Xinhai geming," 91; Shibao , May 22 and 26, June 1, 1913.

58. Shibao , Aug. 28, 1913; Zixuzi, 84.

59. Zixuzi, 84, 90; Wen Gongzhi, 2: 316.

60. Shibao , Oct. 15 and 30, 1913. Chen received a prison sentence and was released in 1916. Shibao , Apr. 24, 1914; Zhao Hengti, section 3; Dai Yue, "Fu Liangzuo du Xiang de pianduan jianwen" [Fragmentary observations on Fu Liangzuo's rule of Hunan], HWZ, 8: 105.

61. Shibao , Dec. 22, 1913. Zhao was saved from a possible death penalty by Li Yuanhong's intervention and received instead a prison sentence. Another intercession by Li resulted in Zhao's release in 1915. Shibao , Apr. 24, 1914; Zhao Hengti, section 3. break

62. Hunan gongbao , Dec. 10, 1913; Shibao , Dec. 23 and 25, 1913; JSZ,1980, no. 2: 149.

63. For these garrison commander appointments, see Zhiyuanlu , 1913, no. 3: lujun guanzuo 38; Shibao , Aug. 11 and Oct. 15, 1913. The newspaper announcements mistakenly list Tao Zhongxun's appointment as South Hunan instead of West Hunan vice garrison commander.

64. Tian Yinzhao was the scion of a prominent West Hunan gentry family and a graduate of Japan's Army Officers' Academy. Dai Jitao, "Xinhai geming houde Xiangxi" [West Hunan after the 1911 Revolution], HWZ, 10: 83.

65. Shibao , Oct. 15 and Nov. 30, 1913.

66. I have been unable to find the exact date for the exchange of Tao and Chen's positions, though the context of various accounts shows that it took place in midsummer 1913. At some point, Tao was replaced as 5th District commander by the revolutionary military activist Liu Wenjin. Liu fled after the failure of the Second Revolution, leaving the post open for Tao's return. Zixuzi, 88; Shibao , June 1 and Oct. 15, 1913; Li Yuanhong, Li fuzongtong , 23: 13b, 30: 6b.

67. In provinces like Sichuan in the 1920s, independent garrison commanders became the symbol of warlord autonomy. See Ch'en, Military-Gentry Coalition , 56-58.

68. Tao Juyin, Beiyang junfa , 1: 197-99.

69. Shibao , Aug. 11, 1913.

70. Shibao , Aug. 6 and 28, 1913; Dai Jitao, 83.

71. Revolutionary activists saw Tao's successor at Yuezhou, Chen Fuchu, as an ally in their attempt to bring Hunan into the Second Revolution. See Wen Chuheng, 62. A bomb attack against Tao in July 1913 probably related to his opposition to the Second Revolution. Li Yuanhong, Li fuzongtong , 23: 13b.

72. Tang Xiangming reported that the Guard Corps numbered some fourteen thousand men in early 1914. JSZ, 1980, no. 2: 98. The West Hunan Green Standard army had some nine thousand troops after the 1911 Revolution and saw little change after that. Zixuzi, 89-90.

73. Shibao , Nov. 20, 193.

74. Tang planned to disband all but three thousand of the Guard Corps troops. JSZ, 1980, no. 2: 98-99.

75. Hunan gongbao , Dec. 10, 1913; JSZ, 1980, no. 2: 140-42; Zhongguo di'er lishi dang'anguan [The no. 2 historical archives of China], Beiyang junfa tongzhi shiqi de bingbian [Mutinies during the period of Beiyang warlord rule] (Nanjing: Jiangsu renmin chubanshe, 1982), 84.

76. Shibao , Mar. 15 and Apr. 30, 1914. break

77. Zhang Zhiben, section 5, part 1. Wang held a magistrate's position and other posts in South Hunan before becoming 6th District commander. Shibao , Aug. 21, 1915, Dec. 22, 1916.

78. At this time Zhao's forces consisted of seven battalions and twelve companies. Zhongguo di'er lishi dang'anguan, 110.

79. Zhongguo di'er lishi dang'anguan, 78-115; Shibao , July 28 and Aug. 4, 1914; Zou Yongcheng and Li Guozhu, "Hunan tao-Yuan zhi yi" [Hunan's oust Yuan war], GMWX, 46, 234-36.

80. Shibao , Sept. 10, 1914.

81. Shibao , Sept. 5, 1914, Aug. 9 and 21, 1915; Zhongguo di'er lishi dang'anguan, 84; Zou and Li, 236.

82. Zhongguo di'er lishi dang'anguan, 84.

83. Shibao , June 9, 1914.

84. Shibao , July 2, 1914; Riben lujun shiguan xuexiao Zhonghua Minguo liuxuesheng mingbu [Name list of Republican-era Chinese students of Japan's Army Officers' Academy] (Taibei: Wenhai chubanshe, 1977), 9.

85. Shibao , Jan. 30 and May 6, 1915, Jan. 9, 1916; Hankou xinwenbao [Hankou News], Mar. 9, 1915.

86. Shibao , Dec. 25, 1914, Jan. 30 and May 6, 1915.

87. Shibao , Mar. 24, Apr. 12, May 25, and June 20, 1915, Mar. 17, 1916; Dagongbao [L'Impartial ], Changsha edition, Oct. 31, 1915.

88. USDS 893.00/2352 (Johnson, Jan. 11, 1916).

89. Shibao , Dec. 15, 18, and 22, 1913, Oct. 18, 1914.

90. Shibao , Oct. 27, 1913.

91. Young, Presidency , 157; Tao Juyin, Beiyang junfa , 2: 75-78; Shibao , May 31, July 3 and 17, 1914.

92. Shibao , Dec. 18, 1913, Oct. 18, 1914.

93. Shibao , May 25 and Oct. 18, 1914.

94. Shibao , Nov. 3 and Dec. 6, 1913, Feb. 15 and Apr. 6, 1914.

95. Shibao , July 17, 1914.

96. Shibao , Jan. 1 and 20, 1914, May 25, 1915.

97. Shibao , Oct. 27, 1913, Feb. 15, 1914.

98. Shibao , May 25, 1914.

99. Shibao , Feb. 18, 1915.

100. Shibao , Feb. 5, 1914.

101. Shibao , Dec. 3 and 16, 1913, Feb. 22, 1915. A Hubei shengyuan , Hu Ruilin had risen to prominence in Hubei society as a businessman and financier in the late Qing era. The marriage of Hu's son to Tang Hualong's daughter cemented their close relationship. Hu served as finance minister in the Hubei military government under Tang Hualong after the 1911 Revolution, and went to Hunan to aid continue

Tang Xiangming's administration on Tang Hualong's recommendation. He Juefei, 2: 618-20.

102. Shibao , Jan. 3, 1914, Jan. 30, 1915; Liu Cuochen, 1.

103. Shibao , Jan. 9 and Feb. 6, 1914.

104. Young, Presidency , 161-62.

105. Shibao , Mar. 7, 1914. This process was also used to continue the removal of native Hubei magistrates.

106. Shibao , Oct. 29, 1914.

107. Ibid.

106. Shibao , Oct. 29, 1914.

107. Ibid.

108. While 1913 budgets showed a deficit of several million yuan for Hubei and a small surplus of a half million yuan for Hunan, the 1914 budgets set by the central government projected surpluses for both provinces of over four million yuan. Shibao , Dec. 12, 1913, May 9, 1914.

109. Shibao , Apr. 6, 1914. Numerous accounts in the Shibao in 1914 and 1915 report both Hunan and Hubei provincial governments working to meet constant central demands for funds.

110. For examples, see Shibao , May 1 and Nov. 25, 1914, Jan. 18, 1915; Dagongbao , Sept. 19, Oct. 14 and 15, 1915.

111. For one example of many such cutbacks, see Dagongbao , Sept. 10, 1915.

112. Shibao , May 25, 1914. I found no evidence for Hunan or Hubei supporting Ernest Young's contention that only upper-level education contracted while primary education was maintained or expanded. Young, Presidency , 198.

113. "Guanyu Tang Xiangming," 53, 64-65. The destruction of education figured prominently in revolutionary propaganda against Tang. For example, see an anti-Tang proclamation in Yang Shiji, 240.

114. Although the frequent remittance of provincial funds is clear from contemporary accounts, it is difficult to estimate the exact amounts involved. This is not only owing to the lack of complete records, but because of the accounting methods employed. Some "national" taxes collected by the provinces were supposed to be sent directly to the central government, and these funds were not officially considered part of provincial remittances. On the other hand, some central remittances were advanced on the spot for national expenses incurred locally. Tang Xiangming reported having forwarded over 9,600,000 yuan to the central government from mid 1914 to mid 1915, but some of his accounts show much of this was advanced to northern armies in Hunan or for other centrally approved expenses. JSZ, 1980, no. 2: 117-22.

115. Young, Presidency , 142-48, discusses terror as a feature of Yuan's dictatorship. break

116. For some of the many references to the imposition of martial law, see Shibao , Feb. 6, Apr. 29, June 12, and Aug. 13, 1914.

117. Shibao , Jan. 6, Mar. 9 and 14, Apr. 22 and 24, May 28, and June 5, 1914, Oct. 4, Nov. 29, and Dec. 1, 1915; USDS 893.00/2233 (Arnold, Oct. 28, 1914), 893.00/2235 (Arnold, Nov. 17, 1914).

118. Zhang Pingzi, "Cong Qingmo dao beifajun ru Xiang qian de Hunan baojie" [Hunan's newspaper world from the late Qing era to the Northern Expedition Army's entry into Hunan], HWZ, 2: 73-75; "Guanyu Tang Xiangming," 54-55, 60-61.

119. "Guanyu Tang Xiangming," 62; USDS 893.00/2352 (Johnson, Jan. 11, 1916); Shibao , Jan. 28, 1916.

120. XGHSX, 719; Shibao , Mar. 19, 1914; Young, Presidency , 143.

121. JSZ, 1980, no. 2: 134.

122. Shibao , Apr. 8, 1914; Jing Siyou, "Beiyang junfa tongzhi Hunan shiqi jianwen suoji" [A trivial record of experiences in the period of Beiyang Army control of Hunan], HWZ, 8: 136.

123. Shibao , Mar. 14, June 12, and Oct. 1, 1914, Feb. 26 and Nov. 21, 1915.

124. JSZ, 43: 134; "Guanyu Tang Xiangming," 51-52.

125. "Guanyu Tang Xiangming," 59. A "survivors' society" compiling evidence of Tang's crimes also reached a figure of over fifteen thousand executions. Dagongbao , Jan. 4, 1917. The Hunan Provincial Assembly used this figure in an impeachment of Tang in late 1916. Shibao , Nov. 29, 1916.

126. Tu Zhuju, "Tang Xiangming zai Xiang baoxing ji choubei dizhi jishi" [A record of Tang Xiangming's atrocities in Hunan and his preparations for the monarchy], WZX, 48: 140.

127. USDS 893.00/2233 (Arnold, Oct. 28, 1914).

128. Tu Zhuju, 141-42.

129. Central China Post , Aug. 17, 1914, enclosed in USDS 893.00/2202.

130. Shibao , Oct. 1, 1914.

131. Tu Zhuju, 140; "Guanyu Tang Xiangming," 53-54; JSZ,1980, no. 2: 134-35.

132. JSZ, 1980, no. 2: 134; Shibao , Oct. 4, 1915.

133. USDS 893.00/2234 (Arnold, Nov. 2, 1914), 893.00/2235 (Arnold, Nov. 17, 1914).

134. Shibao , June 5, 1914.

135. Shibao , July 31, 1914.

136. Shibao , Mar. 14, 1914.

137. Xiao Zhongqi, "Ji Tang Xiangming tusha Yang Delin deng" [A record of Tang Xiangming's slaughter of Yang Delin, etc.], HWZ, continue

3: 203-5; "Guanyu Tang Xiangming," 43-46; Shibao , Nov. 15, 21, and 24, 1913.

138. The gentry, of course, were not the only or even the primary victims of the terror. Peasant disturbances were also harshly dealt with in this period and accounted for many executions in the countryside. Tang gave standing orders for the execution of all bandits captured by county officials, regardless of whether they were leaders or followers and of the seriousness of their offenses. Tu Zhuju, 145. It is difficult, however, to ascertain the extent to which this situation differed from the usual harsh suppression of lower-class disturbances. It is in this comparative sense that the vulnerability of the gentry to repression at this time assumes special significance.

139. Young, Presidency , 177-209.

140. Ibid., 213.

139. Young, Presidency , 177-209.

140. Ibid., 213.

141. Shibao , Nov. 26 and 29, Dec. 1, 1915.

142. Dagongbao , Sept. 22, 1915; Shibao , Sept. 13, 14, and 25, Oct. 4, 1915.

143. Dagongbao , Oct. 1, 1915.

144. Li Chien-nung, 317-18.

145. Tu Zhuju, 146-48.

146. Ibid., 148; Dagongbao , Oct. 29, 1915; USDS 893.01/58 (Johnson, Oct. 29, 1915) and enclosed circular dated Nov. 5, 1915, from the Hubei commissioner of foreign affairs (Cunningham, Nov. 5, 1915).

145. Tu Zhuju, 146-48.

146. Ibid., 148; Dagongbao , Oct. 29, 1915; USDS 893.01/58 (Johnson, Oct. 29, 1915) and enclosed circular dated Nov. 5, 1915, from the Hubei commissioner of foreign affairs (Cunningham, Nov. 5, 1915).

147. Dagongbao , Sept. 1, 2, 3, and 22, 1915; Shibao , Sept. 6 and 12, 1915; USDS 893.00/2372 ("Economic and Political Conditions in Hankow," 1915 annual report).

148. USDS 893.00/2352 (Johnson, Jan. 11, 1916).

149. USDS 893.00/2352 (Lagerquist, Jan. 18, 1916).

150. Shibao , Jan. 28 and May 6, 1916.

151. USDS 893.00/2234 (Arnold, Nov. 2, 1914).

152. Shibao , Oct. 5, 1915.

153. USDS 893.00/2352 (Johnson, Jan. 11, 1916), 893.00/2372 ("Economic and Political Conditions in Hankow," 1915 annual report).

154. USDS 893.00/2348 (Cunningham, Dec. 29, 1915).

155. Dagongbao , Sept. 22, 1915; Shibao , Sept. 13, 1915.