1. George E Kennan, Russia and the West under Lenin and Stalin (Boston: 1961), 223.

2. Louis Fischer, The Soviets in World Affairs: A History of the Relations between the Soviet Union and the Rest of the World (London: 1930); Theodore H. von Laue, "Soviet Diplomacy: G. V. Chicherin, People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs, 1918-1930," in The Diplomats, 1919-1939 , ed. Gordon A. Craig and Felix Gilbert (Princeton, N.J.: 1953; reprint, New York, 1963); Kennan, Russia and the West; Adam Ulam, Expansion and Coexistence: The History of Soviet Foreign Policy, 1917-1967 (New York: 1968).

3. Teddy J. Uldricks, "Russia and Europe: Diplomacy, Revolution, and Economic Development in the 1920s," International History Review 1 (1979): 55-83; also his Diplomacy and Ideology: The Origins of Soviet Foreign Relations, 1917-1930 (London and Beverly Hills, Calif.: 1979).

4. Two of the earliest works were the third volume of E. H. Carr's Socialism in One Country, 1924-1926 (New York: 1964) and Harvey L. Dyck's Weimar Germany and Soviet Russia, 1926-1933: A Study in Diplomatic Instability (London: 1966). The method was perfected in two works of Richard K. Debo, Revolution and Survival: The Foreign Policy of Soviet Russia, 1917-18 (Toronto: 1979) and Survival and Consolidation: The Foreign Policy of Soviet Russia, 1918-1921 (Montreal and Kingston: 1992). Both works are based on a combination of archival and printed sources from the governments of Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy, and the United States, as well as on published Russian sources.

5. The publication of Moshe Lewin's La paysannerie et le pouvoir soviétique (Paris: 1966) marked the beginning of this development. The literature that followed is too vast to discuss here. For a compilation of research on NEP society and culture made in 1986, at the beginning of perestroika , see Sheila Fitzpatrick, Alexander Rabinowich, and Richard Stites (eds.), Russia in the Era of NEP: Explorations in Soviet Society and Culture (Bloomington, Ind.: 1991). A summary of research on the economy prior to the dissolution of the USSR in 1991 is presented in R. W. Davies (ed.), From Tsarism to the New Economic Policy: Continuity and Change in the Economy of the USSR (Ithaca, N.Y.: 1991).

6. This research is described in R. W. Davies, Soviet History in the Gorbachev Revolution (London: 1989), 27-46.

7. See, for example, R. W. Davies' observation in the introduction to From Tsarism to the New Economic Policy , pp. 25-26, that consideration of the international situation of the USSR has played little part in the debates among economic historians regarding the breakdown of NEP; and V. A. Shishkin's statement that ''The study and elucidation of the country's socioeconomic development in the 1920s are carried out without taking into consideration the country's interactions and relationships with the world economy": "The external factor in the country's socioeconomic development," in "The Soviet Union in the 1920s: A Roundtable," Soviet Studies in History 28 (1989): 48.

8. L. N. Nezhinskii, "Istoriia vneshnei politiki SSSR: poiski novykh podkhodov," Novaia i noveishaia istoriia (1990:4): 3.

9. Zinovii Sheinis, Maxim Litvinov (Moscow: 1990); original Russian edition, 1989.

10. A. A. Galkin, "Nekotorye voprosy istorii Kominterna," Novaia i noveishaia istoriia (1989:2): 83.

11. Shishkin, "External factor," 54.

12. Jon Jacobson, "Is There a New International History of the 1920s?" American Historical Review 88 (1983): 617-45. See also Donald Cameron Watt, "The New International History," International History Review 9 (1987): 518-52; Alexander de Conde, "On the Nature of International History," International History Review 10 (1988): 282-301; and Stephen Pelz, "On Systematic Explanation in International History" International History Review 12 (1990): 763-81.