1. KJ , vol. 1, 156; YM, 88.

2. J. Williams, Japan's Political Revolution , 50; Inoki, Hyoden Yoshida , vol. 3, 319. The Williams papers in the East Asia collection, University of Maryland (JWC), contain a series of memos from Williams to Whitney on the political maneuverings during October and November 1948.

3. YM , 88.

4. YM , 88; Yoshida, Sekai to Nihon , 90; Uchida, "Kokunai seijika, 163.

5. The following account is based on Miki ltr. to author, Mar. 18, 1981.

6. Inoki, Hyoden Yoshida , vol. 3, 319-321; Masumi, Postwar Politics , 166; Williams memo to Whitney, Oct. 14, 1948, JWC.

7. F 14563/44/23, FO 371/69824, Gascoigne tel. no. 1176 to London, Oct. 16, 1948.

8. Inoki, Hyoden Yoshida , vol. 3, 321; Masumi, Postwar Politics , 164.

9. Inoki, Hyoden Yoshida , vol. 3, 322; Bunker memo to MacArthur, Oct. 19, 1948, MMA, RG 5, Box 64; Takeuchi (ed.), Yoshida naikaku , 550.

10. J. Williams, Japan's Political Revolution , 217-218.

11. Watanabe T., Senryoka , 177-178; J. Williams, Japan's Political Rev. olution , 68.

12. Katayama's resignation in February 1948 automatically brought about the resignation of his cabinet but did not dissolve the lower house. In November Yoshida "insisted on the right of the government to dissolve the Diet under Article 7" ( YM , 89). GS, which had carefully drafted the dissolution provisions of the constitution to make dissolution dependent on Diet authorization, vigorously opposed this interpretation.

13. Williams memo to Whitney, Nov. 26, 1948, JWC; J. Williams, Japan's Political Revolution , 218-219; Inoki, Hyoden Yoshida , vol. 3, 332-333; YM , 89. MacArthur wobbled on the timing of dissolution; at first he seemed to accept Yoshida's proposal for a dissolution called by the prime minister after the NPSL amendments were enacted, but "later he had to renege on his commitment" (Williams memo to author, Nov. 3, 1978).

14. Kades memo for record, Nov. 29, 1948, JWC; Inoki, Hyoden Yoshida , vol. 3, 334; J. Williams, Japan's Political Revolution , 220-221.

15. Yoshida ltr. to MacArthur, Nov. 28, 1948, JWC.

16. Ibid.

17. J. Williams, Japan's Political Revolution , 221; Watanbe T., Senryoka , 178-179; KJ , vol. 3, 198.

18. J. Williams, Japan's Political Revolution , 91-92; T. Cohen, Remaking Japan , 430.

19. Inoki, Hyoden Yoshida , vol. 3, 338; FRUS , 1948 , vol. 6, 605-607.

20. Inoki, Hyoden Yoshida , vol. 3, 339-340.

21. Masumi, Postwar Politics , 180.

22. F 19974, FO 371/76203, Gascoigne desp. no. 24, Jan. 27, 1949.

23. Ibid.; Dower, "Yoshida in the Scales of History," 5.

24. F 2420/1015/23, FO 371/76179, Gascoigne desp. no. 30, Feb. 2, 1949.

25. MacArthur and GS explained the election results in terms of left and right: the combined vote for the Democratic Liberals and the Democrats on the right and for the Socialists and Communists on the left was not greatly different from the previous election in 1947. Therefore, GS felt no great cause for concern about the results. See POLAD desp. no. 114, Feb. 21, 1949, NRAW, 894.00/2-2149.

26. Inoki, Hyoden Yoshida , vol. 3,338. Of those elected in 1949, 18.2 percent were former officials. This level has held fairly constant since then (C. Johnson, MITI , 46). Many of these politicians have brought technical expertise and sophistication to Japanese politics even if they had been trained in prewar Japan.

27. FRUS, 1945 , vol. 6, 460-468; Yoshida ltr. to Sebald, Apr. 6, 1949, MMA, VIP file—Yoshida; Sebald, With MacArthur , 72-74, 301-302; DOS, TIAS Series 1911, " Awa Maru Claim," signed at Tokyo, Apr. 11, 1949.

28. CLM desp. no. 48 to Ottawa, Feb. 14, 1949, file 104-C 50061, v. 4; POLAD desp. 314, May 16, 1949, NRAW, DOS file 894.00/5-1649.

29. FRUS, 1949 , vol. 7, 660, 663.

30. Int. with Kades; Shukan Shincho Henshubu (ed.), "Kadeisu taisa," 335-336; Masumi, Postwar Politics , 167. Kades's departure from Japan in late 1948 is sometimes regarded as a significant turning point in American policy. His unpublished speech to the Council on Foreign Relations in New York on May 10, 1949, was approved by MacArthur and presented what might be termed an official SCAP view on occupation goals and policies; copy in author's file.

31. MacArthur ltr., Dec. 19, 1948, MMA, RG 10, VIP file—Yoshida; FRUS, 1948 , vol. 6, 1066-1067.

32. Marquat memo of July 15, 1948, MMA, RG 10, VIP file—Yoshida; Yoshida ltr., Dec. 19, 1948, MMA, RG 10, VIP file—Yoshida; Watanabe T., Senryoka , 152-153.

33. Saltzman memo to Acheson, Jan. 26, 1949, DOS file, RG 59, Box 3825, NRAW.

34. SCAP message C 66236 to DA, Dec. 12, 1948, MMA, RG 10, Box 11; CLM desp. no. 183 to Ottawa, Mar. 18, 1949, file 104-C 50061, v. 4. MacArthur did not like to be given orders or advice from outside his own camp. On the wall of his office in Tokyo he had placed a quotation from the Roman historian Livy, citing a speech by the Roman general, Lucius Aemilius Paulus, who fought the Macedonians in 168 B.C. It ended with the words "Rest assured that we shall pay no attention to any councils but such as shall be framed within our own camp." At the bottom of the quotation MacArthur had written the words "Amen. Douglas MacArthur" (Gunther, The Riddle , 55-56).

35. T. Cohen, Remaking Japan , 431-435; Watanabe T., Senryoka , 189-195; Halberstam, The Reckoning , 125-130.

36. Hunsberger, Japan and the United States , 106; Hata (ed.), Amerika , 391-395; J. Cohen, Japan's Economy , 84-86. To promote trade SCAP developed a large office in ESS. This office worked closely with MITI. Some Japanese believe this large staff in ESS had the long-term effect of imposing tight governmental control over the economy (see Yoshino, "A Private Matter," 13).

37. KJ , vol. 3, 204-211; Inoki, Hyoden Yoshida , vol. 3, 342.

38. Watanabe T., Senryoka , 190; Miyazawa, Tokyo-Washinton , 14.

39. Miyazawa, Tokyo-Washinton , 21-22.

40. Uchino, Japan's Postwar Economy , 48-51; Watanabe T., Senryoka , 189-190.

41. Inoki, Hyoden Yoshida , vol. 3, 350.

42. Suzuki G., "Impact of the Korean War: A Memoir," and "Impact of the Korean War: An Overview."

43. See McDiarmid, "The Japanese Exchange Rate"; Suzuki G., "Japan's Experience," 2-6.

44. Suzuki G., "Japan's Experience," 6; Dick K. Nanto, "Shoup Mission," Kodansha Encyclopedia of Japan , vol. 7, 172-173; Inoki, Hyoden Yoshida , val. 3, 360.

45. Ints. with Shirasu and Takeuchi Ryuji. See C. Johnson, MITI , 191-194; this book contains a thorough study of twentieth-century Japanese trade and industrial policy. Yoshida, who had a particular interest in commercial policy throughout his diplomatic career, was careful to provide MITI with some top-drawer diplomatic talent (McCraw [ed.], America Versus Japan , 122).

46. C. Johnson, MITI , 194-195; Watanabe T., Senryoka , 257-263.

47. FRUS, 1950 , vol. 6, 1134; Schaller, The American Occupation , viii; Borden, The Pacific Alliance , 191-222; James, The Years of MacArthur , vol. 3, 234-235.

48. FRUS, 1949 , vol. 7, 1215-1220; FRUS, 1951 , vol. 6, 33-63; Acheson speech, "Crisis in Asia—An Examination of U.S. Policy," DOSB , Jan. 23, 1950, 111-118; Watanabe A., "Southeast Asia," 80-95; Hunsberger, Japan and the United States , 184-185. See Yamamoto, "The Cold War." The term great crescent was used in the early draft of a State Department policy planning staff paper, PPS 51 ( FRUS, 1949 , vol. 7, 1128-113), but was omitted in later versions, which became the NSC 48 series. Hayes, The Beginning of American Aid , 3-58, gives a careful summary of U.S. aid to Southeast Asia up to June 1951: the total programmed for Indochina, Burma, Thailand, and Indonesia amounted to $49 million in various forms of technical assistance; deliveries to recipient countries lagged between one and three years after the programs were authorized (46-51). Indonesia also received a $100 million credit from the U.S. Export-Import Bank in 1950 (49).

49. Suzuki G., "Impact of the Korean War: A Memoir," 7-11; int. with Nagano.

50. F 6745/1615/23, FO 371/76182, Pink letter to FO, Apr. 30, 1949.

51. Int. with Aso Kazuko; CLM desp. no. 183 to Ottawa, Mar. 18, 1949, 104-C, 50061 v. 4; KJ , vol. 4, 67-69.

52. Nakamura, The Postwar Japanese Economy , 38-39; "Consider Japan," Sept. 1, 1962, 795; Tsutsui, Banking Policy , 105-106.

53. Comment of Bronfenbrenner, proceedings of the symposium The Occupation of Japan: Economic Policy and Reform, MMA, Apr. 13-15, 1978, 77 ; T. Cohen, Remaking Japan , 442.