1. Ruth Roessel, Women in Navajo Society (Rough Rock, Ariz.: Navajo Resource Center, 1981).

2. Karen Anderson, Changing Woman: A History of Racial Ethnic Women in Modern America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996); Bettina Aptheker, Tapestries of Life: Women's Work, Women's Consciousness, and the Meaning of Daily Experience (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1989), p. 228.

3. Theda Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992); Linda Gordon, ed., Women, the State, and Welfare (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990); Kathryn Kish Sklar, "The Historical Foundations of Women's Power in the Creation of the American Welfare State, 1830-1930," in Seth Koven and Sonya Michel, eds., Mothers of a New World: Maternalist Politics and the Origins of Welfare States (New York: Routledge, 1993), pp. 43-93; Molly Ladd-Taylor, "'My Work Came Out of Agony and Grief': Mothers and the Making of the Sheppard-Towner Act," in Koven and Michel, eds., Mothers of a New World, pp. 321-343. Gwendolyn Mink, Eileen Boris, and Sonya Michel particularly notice the contradictory meanings of the welfare state for poor and racial ethnic women. Gwendolyn Mink, "The Lady and the Tramp: Gender, Race, and the Origins of the American Welfare State," in Gordon, ed., Women, the State, and Welfare, pp. 92-122; Eileen Boris, ''The Power of Motherhood: Black and White Activist Women Redefine the 'Political,"' in Koven and Michel, eds., Mothers of a New World, pp. 213-245; Sonya Michel, "The Limits of Maternalism: Policies toward American Wage-Earning Mothers during the Progressive Era," in Koven and Michel, eds., Mothers of a New World, pp. 277-320.

4. Mink, "The Lady and the Tramp," pp. 92, 105.

5. Ibid., p. 110.

6. Maureen Fitzgerald's examination of Protestant policies toward Irish Catholic and Jewish families in New York City in the nineteenth century achieves a similar extension. Her work reveals that mothers' pensions evolved in reaction to the establishment of Catholic and Jewish institutions outside the regulatory grasp of Protestant reformers. Maureen Fitzgerald, "Irish-Catholic Nuns and the Development of New York City's Welfare System, 1845-1903," (Ph.D. diss., University of Wisconsin, 1992). Dolores Janiewski, "Learning to Live 'Just Like White Folks': Gender, Ethnicity and the State in the Inland Northwest," in Dorothy O. Helly and Susan M. Reberby, eds., Gendered Domains: Rethinking Public and Private in Women's History (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1991), pp. 167-180. Indeed, Frederick Jackson Turner saw the frontier as "the meeting point between savagery and civilization." Frederick Jackson Turner, The Significance of the Frontier in American History, ed. Harold P. Simonson (New York: Frederick Ungar Publishing Co., 1963), p. 28.

7. Ann Stoler, "Sexual Affronts and Racial Frontiers: European Identities and the Cultural Politics of Exclusion in Colonial Southeast Asia," Comparative Studies in Society and History (July 1992): 514-551. Patricia Limerick's call to close the frontier as an analytic tool for western history may be premature. Patricia Nelson Limerick, The Legacy of Conquest: The Unbroken Past of the American West (New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 1987), pp. 17-32, 260.

8. Mary E. Young, "Women, Civilization, and the Indian Question," in Virginia Purdy, ed., Clio Was a Woman: Studies in the History of American Women (Washington, D.C.: Howard University Press, 1980), pp. 98-110; Janiewski, "Learning to Live 'Just Like White Folks.'"

9. Young, "Women, Civilization, and the Indian Question"; Ann Laura Stoler, "Sexual Affronts and Racial Frontiers: European Identities and the Cultural Politics of Exclusion in Colonial Southeast Asia," in Frederick Cooper and Ann Laura Stoler, eds., Tensions of Empire: Colonial Cultures in a Bourgeois World (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), pp. 198-237; George J. Sanchez, "'Go After the Women': Americanization and the Mexican Immigrant Woman," in Ellen Carol DuBois and Vicki L. Ruiz, eds., Unequal Sisters: A Multi-Cultural Reader in U.S. Women's History (New York: Routledge, 1990), pp. 250-263.

10. Sanchez, "'Go After the Women,"' pp. 250-263.

11. Emory Bogardus, The Mexican in the United States (New York: Arno Press and the New York Times, 1970, reprint of 1934 edition), p. 28.

12. Ibid.; Mario García, Desert Immigrants: The Mexicans of El Paso, 1880-1920 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981), pp. 200-201; Beatrice Griffith, American Me (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1948), pp. 76-80. Obviously, familial control of young girls also gave parents some control over a daughter's choice of a husband by allowing for relaxed vigilance when an acceptable suitor appeared.

13. William Chafe, The Paradox of Change: The American Woman in the Twentieth Century (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991); Mary Ryan, Womanhood in America from Colonial Times to the Present, 3rd ed. (New York: J. Watts, 1983), pp. 167-252; Sheila Rothman, Woman's Proper Place: A History of Changing Ideals and Practices, 1870 to the Present (New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1978); "El Enganchado" from Paul S. Taylor, Mexican Labor in the United States: Chicago and the Calumet Region (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1932), pp. vi-vii; Manuel Gamio, Mexican Immigration to the United States (New York: Dover Publications, 1971); Maria Herrera-Sobek, "The Acculturation Process of the Chicana in the Corrido," De Colores 6 (1982): 7-16. The fear of maternal power characteristic of modern American gender ideology derives also from women's successful use of maternal rhetoric and role performance to increase women's social and political power.

14. Micaela di Leonardo, The Varieties of Ethnic Experience: Kinship, Class, and Gender among California Italian-Americans (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1984), p. 221; Herrera-Sobek, "The Acculturation Process of the Chicana." These conflicts were also expressed in folk tales. William Jones Wallrich, "Some Variants of the 'Demon Dancer,'" Western Folklore 9 (April 1950): 144-146.

15. Mary Kidder Rak, "A Social Survey of Arizona," University of Arizona Bulletin No. 111 (Tucson, Ariz.: University Extension Division, 1921), pp. 37-38; Letter, J. C. Brodie to B. B. Moeur, September 4, 1934, Governor's Papers, Box 6, Arizona State Archives; Letter, Valente Soto et al. to B. B. Moeur, August 13, 1934, Governor's Papers, Box 6, Arizona State Archives; Winifred Bell, Aid to Dependent Children (New York: Columbia University Press, 1965); Letter, Karl H. McBride to W. C. Ferguson, November 15, 1938, Governor's Papers, Box 10, Arizona State Archives; Selden C. Menefee and Orin C. Cassmore, The Pecan Shellers of San Antonio (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1978, reprint of 1940 edition), pp. 37-43; Migratory Labor, July 1940, Records of the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Record Group 47, Box 34, National Archives; Norman D. Humphrey, "Employment Patterns of Mexicans in Detroit," Monthly Labor Review 61 (November 1945): 913-923.

16. David H. Getches, Daniel M. Rosenfelt, and Charles F. Wilkinson, Federal Indian Law: Cases and Materials (St. Paul, Minn.: West Publishing Company, 1978), pp. 69-77; Leonard A. Carlson, Indians, Bureaucrats, and Land: The Dawes Act and the Decline of Indian Farming (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1981), pp. 115-162; Janet A. McDonnell, The Dispossession of the American Indian, 1887-1934 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991).

17. Frank Knox, "Report on the Ute Indians of Utah and Colorado," October 15, 1915, Special Reports, Board of Indian Commissioners, Papers of the Bureau of Indian Affairs, RG 75, National Archives, vol. 1 [hereafter cited as BIA].

18. Margaret Connell Szasz, Education and the American Indian: The Road to Self-Determination since 1928, 2nd ed. (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1977), pp. 10-11, 22; Hearings before a Subcommittee of the Committee on Indian Affairs of the U.S. Senate, 71st Congress, 3rd Sess., 1930, pp. 4481-4483; Fran Leeper Buss, ed., Dignity: Lower Income Women Tell of Their Lives and Struggles (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1985), pp. 150-168; interview with Irene Mack Pyawasit, Fran Buss Oral History Collection, Special Collections, University of Arizona Library [hereafter cited as UA]; Testimony of As-ton-pia at St. Michaels Mission, Arizona, September 6, 1932 [?], Paper of the Franciscans, St. Michaels, Arizona, UA.

19. Brookings Institution, Institute for Government Research, The Problem of Indian Administration (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1928), p. 567; Polingaysi Qoyawayma, No Turning Back (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1964), p. 69; Robert A. Trennert, The Phoenix Indian School: Forced Assimilation in Arizona, 1891-1935 (Norman: University of Oklahoma, 1988), pp. 56, 145-146.

20. Qoyawayma, No Turning Back, pp. 67-76; quotes on p. 69.

21. Ibid., pp. 67-76.

22. Flora Warren Seymour, "Report on the Mescalero Indian Reservation, New Mexico," June 6, 1932, BIA, vol. 10; Flora Warren Seymour, "Indian Service Educational Activities in the Southwest,"July 28, 1932, BIA, vol. 10; William Ketcham, "Report on the Eufala Boarding School, Eufala, Oklahoma," February 20, 1917, BIA, vol. 1.

23. Frederick E. Hoxie and Joan T. Mark, eds., With the Nez Perces: Alice Fletcher in the Field, 1889-1892 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1981), p. 35; Estelle Aubrey Brown, Stubborn Fool: A Narrative (Caldwell, Idaho: Caxton Printers, Ltd., 1952); Janiewski, "Learning to Live 'Just Like White Folks.'"

24. Peggy Pascoe, Relations of Rescue (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990); Kathy Peiss, Cheap Amusements: Working Women and Leisure in Turn-of-the-Century New York (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1986); Ryan, Womanhood in America; Elizabeth Ewen, Immigrant Women in the Land of Dollars: Life and Culture on the Lower East Side, 1890-1925 (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1985); Carroll Smith-Rosenberg, Disorderly Conduct: Visions of Gender in Victorian America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), pp. 245-296.