1. Jacob Robinson, Palestine and the United Nations: Prelude to Solution (Washington, D.C.: Public Affairs Press, 1947), 145; Edward B. Glick, Latin America and the Palestine Problem (New York: Theodore Herzl Foundation, 1958); Ignacio Klich, "Latin America, the United States and the Birth of Israel: The Case of Somoza's Nicaragua," Journal of Latin American Studies 20:2 (November 1988), 389-432; Jorge García-Granados, The Birth of Israel: The Drama As I Saw It (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1949), 247.

2. Cited in Ignacio Klich, "The Roots of Argentine Abstentionism in the Palestine Question, 1946" (unpublished manuscript used by permission of the author).

3. From 1900 to 1945, between 90 and 95 percent of the Jewish immigrants arriving in Brazil were from Europe. The others came from Turkey, Morocco, Palestine, and other parts of the Ottoman Empire.

4. Jeremy Cohen has expressed such a notion, perhaps anachronistically, in his The Friars and the Jews: The Evolution of Medieval Anti-Judaism (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1982), 254.

5. In Europe anti-Semites began commenting on "the Jewish Question" in the early nineteenth century to suggest that the cultural and economic success of Jews meant that they would never adequately fit into the majority cultures in which they resided. By the late nineteenth century, however, European Jews and Gentiles used the phrase as a shorthand for how the national political elite and intelligentsia viewed the Jewish populations who lived within their national boundaries. See Isaac Landman, "Jewish Question," in The Universal Jewish Encyclopedia (New York: Universal Jewish Encyclopedia, 1939-43), 6:140-41. As early as 1933 the term was used in Brazil in José Pérez's Questão judaica, questão social (São Paulo: Empresa Grafica da "Revista dos Tribunaes," 1933). See also J. Cabral, A questão judaica (Porto Alegre: Livraria do Globo, 1937); Anor Butler Maciel, Nacionalismo: O problema judaico no mundo e no Brasil: O nacional-socialismo (Porto Alegre: Livraria do Globo, 1937); Osório Lopes, O problema judaico (Petrópolis: Vozes, 1942).

6. Cohen, The Friars and the Jews , 242.

7. W. Darrel Overdyke, The Know-Nothing Party in the South (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1950), 2.

8. Lyle N. McAlister, Spain and Portugal in the New World, 1492-1700 (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1984), 53.

9. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism , 2d ed. (London: Verso, 1991), 50.

10. I have used the term elites throughout this text to refer to the intellectuals and politicians affiliated directly with the Vargas regime, including those in the diplomatic corps or its related international economic organs. It also includes state politicians who represented urban working- and middle-class constituencies. "Elite" should not be read as referring to traditional members of Brazil's elite classes such as rural oligarchs, or coronéis .

11. Thomas E. Skidmore, Fact and Myth: Discovering a Racial Problem in Brazil , Helen Kellog Institute for International Studies Working Paper no. 173 (Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame, 1992); George Reid Andrews, Blacks and Whites in São Paulo, Brazil, 1888-1988 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1991); Jan Fiola, Race Relations in Brazil: A Reassessment of the "Racial Democracy" Thesis , Program in Latin American Studies Occasional Paper Series, no. 24 (Amherst: University of Massachusetts at Amherst, 1990); Pierre-Michel Fontaine, ed., Race, Class and Power in Brazil (Los Angeles: Center for Afro-American Studies, 1985); Thomas E. Skidmore, Black into White: Race and Nationality in Brazilian Thought (New York: Oxford University Press, 1974); Anani Dzdidzienyo, The Position of Blacks in Brazilian Society (London: Minority Rights Group, 1971); Florestan Fernandes, "Immigration and Race Relations in São Paulo," in Magnus Mörner, ed., Race and Class in Latin America (New York: Columbia University Press, 1970), 122-42.

12. "Manifesto dos intelectuais brasileiros contra o preconceito racial" of October 1935, reprinted in Arthur Ramos, Guerra e relaões de raça (Rio de Janeiro: Departamento Editorial da União Nacional dos Estudantes, 1943), 171-74; Skidmore, Black into White , 207. In a later essay, Skidmore acknowledged Brazil's anti-Semitic visa policy during the Vargas era but continued to argue that "no significant number [of Brazilians] wanted to apply political racism in Brazil"; see "Racial Ideas and Social Policy in Brazil, 1870-1940," in Richard Graham, ed., The Idea of Race in Latin America, 1870-1940 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1990), 26.

13. Anita Novinsky, Cristãos novos na Bahia, 1624-1654 (São Paulo: Editora Perspectiva, 1972); Arnold Wiznitzer, Jews in Colonial Brazil (New York: Columbia University Press, 1960).

14. Eva Alterman Blay, "Inquisião, inquisições: Aspectos da participação dos judeus na vida sócio-política brasileira nos anos 30," Tempo Social 1:1 (1989), 105-30.

15. Jacob X. Cohen, Jewish Life in South America: A Survey Study for the American Jewish Congress (New York: Bloch Publishing, 1941), 30; Maria Luiza Tucci Carneiro, "Os novos-cristãos do século XX," in O anti-semitismo na era Vargas: Fantasmas de uma geraão (1930-1945 ) (São Paulo: Brasiliense, 1988), 234-46.

16. Yosef Hayim Yerushalmi, Assimilation and Racial Anti-Semitism: The Iberian and the German Models , Leo Baeck Memorial Lecture no. 26 (New York: Leo Baeck Institute, 1982), 5.

17. Andrews, Blacks and Whites , 151. Jeffrey D. Needell, A Tropical Belle Epoque: Elite Culture and Society in Turn-of-the-Century Rio de Janeiro (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987).

18. Steven Topik, "Middle Class Brazilian Nationalism, 1889-1930: From Radicalism to Reaction," Social Science Quarterly 59:1 (June 1978), 101-2.

19. Daphne Patai, "Minority Status and the Stigma of 'Surplus Visibility,'" Chronicle of Higher Education 38:10 (October 30, 1991), A52.

20. Decree law 528 (28 June 1890), art. 1.

21. Flávio V. Luizetto, "Os constituintes em face da imigraão: Estudo sobre o preconceito e a discriminação racial e étnica na constituinte de 1934" (master's thesis, Department of History, University of São Paulo, 1975); Robert M. Levine, The Vargas Regime: The Critical Years, 1934-1938 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1970), 24.

22. Readers should not expect to find a community history of Jews in Brazil here. Those looking for a discussion of the formation of Brazil's modern Jewish community should see Egon Wolff and Frieda Wolff, Os judeus no Brasil imperial (São Paulo: Centro de Estudos Judaicos, 1975) and Os judeus nos primór-dios do Brasil-República, visto especialmente pela documentaão no Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro: Biblioteca Israelita H. N. Bialik, 1979); Raphael Copstein, "O trabalho estrangeiro no município do Rio Grande," in Boletim Gaúcho de Geografia , Série geografia, no. 4 (Porto Alegre: n.p., 1975); Bruno Basseches, Bibliografia dos livros, folhetos e artigos referente a história dos judeus no Brasil, incluindo as obras sobre judaismo publicadas no Brasil (Rio de Janeiro: n.p., 1961); Salomão Serebrenick and Elias Lipiner, Breve história dos judeus no Brasil (Rio de Janeiro: Edições Biblos, 1962); Kurt Loewenstamm, Vultos judaicos no Brasil , vol. 2, Império 1822-1899 (Rio de Janeiro: Editora A Noite, 1956); Samuel Malamud, "Contribucíon judía al desarollo del Brasil en las 150 años de la independência," in Comunidades judías de Latinoamérica (Buenos Aires: Oficina Subamerica del Comité Judía Americano, 1971-1972), 330-39; Samuel Malamud, Do arquivo e da memória: Fatos, personagems e reflexões sobre o sionismo brasileiro e mundial (Rio de Janeiro: Bloch Editores, 1983); Anita Novinsky, "Os israelitas em São Paulo," in São Paulo: espírito, povo, instituições , ed. J. V. Freitas Marcondes and Osmar Pimentel (São Paulo: Livraria Pioneira Editora, 1968), 107-26; Nachman Falbel, Estudos sobre a comunidade judaica no Brasil (São Paulo: Federação Israelita de São Paulo, 1984); Alice Irene Hirschberg, Desafio e resposta: A história da congregação israelita paulista (São Paulo: Congregação Israelita Paulista, 1976); Henrique Rattner, Tradição e mudança: A comunidade judaica em São Paulo (São Paulo: Editora Ática, 1977); Jeffrey Lesser, ''Pawns of the Powerful: Jewish Immigration to Brazil, 1904-1945" (Ph.D. diss., New York University, 1989).

23. The terms refugee and immigrant are used interchangeably here. Although they theoretically have distinguishable meanings, in this case they do not. While most European Jews who migrated to Brazil may not have left their countries of origin by choice (thus making them refugees), their inability to return to their homelands often led them to be treated, both hypothetically and practically, as immigrants. Jews entering Brazil with tourist visas often intended to remain permanently, exactly as authorities assumed they would. Furthermore, as open anti-Semitism in public policy became less acceptable to the pro-Allied international community that Brazil strived to be part of, policymakers discovered that general anti-immigrant legislation could easily be applied to Jewish refugees.

24. Carneiro, O anti-semitismo ; Júlio José Chiavenato, O inimigo eleito: Os judeus, o poder e o anti-semitismo (Porto Alegre: Mercado Aberto, 1985); Alcir Lenharo, Sacralizaão da política (Campinas: Papiras, 1986); Marcos Chor Maio, Nem Rotschild nem Trotsky: O pensamento anti-semita de Gustavo Barroso (Rio de Janeiro: Imago, 1992); Roney Cytrynowicz, "Integralismo e anti-semitismo nos textos de Gustavo Barroso na década de 30" (master's thesis, Department of History, University of São Paulo, 1991).

25. Roberto Schwarz, "Brazilian Culture: Nationalism by Elimination," New Left Review 167 (January/February 1988), 77-90. This essay has appeared in Portuguese in Schwarz's Que horas são (São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 1987), 29-48.

26. Getúlio Vargas, A nova polãtica do Brasil , vol. 6, Realizaães do Estado Novo, 1 de agôsto de 1938 a 7 de setembro de 1939 (Rio de Janeiro: José Olympio Editora, 1940), 88.

27. It is important to remember that immigrants destined for rural areas were not always given the right to enter Brazil. A mid-nineteenth-century attempt to bring in Chinese rural labor was rejected by Brazil's Congress, and, as late as the 1920s, attempts by North American blacks to form colonies in Matto Grosso were rejected by the Brazilian government. See Teresa Meade and Gregory Alonso Pirio, "In Search of the Afro-American 'Eldorado': Attempts by North American Blacks to Enter Brazil in the 1920s," Luso-Brazilian Review 25 (1988), 85-109; and Jeffrey Lesser, "Are African-Americans African or American? Brazilian Immigration Policy in the 1920s," Review of Latin American Studies 4:1 (1991), 115-37.

28. Brazilian constitution of 25 March 1824, pt. 1, art. 5; Geraldo Fernandes, "A religião nas constituicões republicanas do Brasil," Revista Eclesiáistica Brasileira 8:4 (December 1948), 830-57.

29. George P. Browne, "Government Immigration Policy in Imperial Brazil, 1822-1870" (Ph.D. diss., Catholic University of America, 1972), 301; Brazilian constitution of 25 March 1824, pt. 1, art. 5; Joseph Love, Rio Grande do Sul and Brazilian Regionalism, 1882-1930 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1971), 24.

30. Browne, "Government Immigration Policy," 301; Brazilian Constitution of 25 March 1824, pt. 1, art. 5.

31. Michael M. Hall, "The Origins of Mass Immigration to Brazil, 1871-1914" (Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1969).

32. Anthony H. Richmond, Immigration and Ethnic Conflict (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1988), 9.

33. The plans to encourage European entry were helped by the surprisingly small price differential between domestic and international transportation and the growing expulsion of poor Italian farmers from their plots. See Douglas H. Graham and Sérgio Buarque Hollanda Filho, Migration, Regional and Urban Growth, and Development in Brazil: A Selective Analysis of the Historical Record, 1872-1979 (São Paulo: Instituto de Pesquisas Econômicas—Universidade de São Paulo, 1971).

34. Maria Stella Ferreira Levy, "O papel da migraão internacional na evolução da população brasileira (1872-1972)," Revista de Saúde Pública (São Paulo), supp. 8 (1974), 71-72. In 1903, based on regular reports of the poor treatment of immigrants, Italy promulgated the so-called Prinetti decree, prohibiting Italian citizens from accepting free transportation to Brazil.

35. Richmond, Immigration and Ethnic Conflict , 9.

36. José Sebastião Witter, "A política imigratória no Brasil," in Inmigracíon y politica inmigrante en el cono sur de America , ed. Hernán Asdrúbal Silva (Washington, D.C.: CPDP-CAS-PAIGH, 1990), 3:253-60.

37. Seymour B. Liebman, New World Jewry, 1493-1825: Requiem for the Forgotten (New York: KTAV Publishing House, 1982), especially pp. 131-68.

38. Novinsky, Cristãos novos na Bahia , 67.

39. Jacob Lestschinsky, "Jewish Migrations, 1840-1956," in The Jews: Their History, Culture and Religion , 3d ed., ed. Louis Finkelstein (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1960), 2:1554; Wolff and Wolff, Os judeus nos primór-dios do Brasil-República .

40. Between 1840 and 1900 the United States received about 875,000 Jews and Argentina about 27,000. See Lestschinsky, "Jewish Migrations, 1840-1956," 2:1554; and Mark Wischnitzer, To Dwell in Safety: The Story of Jewish Migration since 1800 (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1948), 295.

41. Loewenstamm, Vultos judaicos no Brasil , 2:25.

42. Cited in Allan Peskin and Donald Ramos, "An Ohio Yankee at Dom Pedro's Court: Notes on Brazilian Life in the 1850s by an American Diplomat, Robert C. Schenk." Americas 38:4 (April 1982), 511.

43. American Israelite (Cincinnati), 18 March 1881, 300.

44. Encyclopedia Judaica (Jerusalem, Keter Publishing House, 1971), 4B: 1, 326.

45. Nachman Falbel, "Oswaldo Boxer e o projeto de colonizaão de judeus no Brasil," Jornal do Imigrante 10 (December 1987/January 1988), 18.

46. Leon Kellner, Theodore Herzl's Lehrjahre, 1860-1895 (Vienna and Berlin: R. Loewit Verlag, 1920), 142-44.

47. Encyclopedia Judaica , 4B:1,326. Sarah Bernhardt, who first visited Brazil in 1886, complains in her correspondence of yellow fever in Rio de Janeiro and that "rats and mice [are] everywhere"; cited in Arthur Gold and Robert Fizdale, The Divine Sarah: A Life of Sarah Bernhardt (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1991), 225.

48. Brazil, Fundaão Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística, Conselho Nacional de Estatística, Servio Nacional de Recenseamento, Recenseamento geral do Brasil, 1950 , National Series, População presente na data dos recenseamentos gerais, segundo algumas das principals características individuais (Rio de Janeiro: Imprensa Nacional, 1954), vol. 1, pt. 1.

49. Wolff and Wolff, Os judeus no Brasil imperial , xxi; Harry S. Linfield, "Statistics of the Jews," in American Jewish Yearbook — 5683 (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1922), 22:301. See also Leib Hersch, "Jewish Migrations during the Last Hundred Years," in Central Yiddish Culture Organization, The Jewish People: Past and Present (New York: Jewish Encyclopedic Handbooks, 1946), 1: 407-30. Statistics on Jewish immigration to Brazil tend to vary greatly. All information prior to 1937 comes from various volumes of the American Jewish Yearbook , which itself notes that its statistics on Jewish immigration to Brazil are somewhat unreliable. Jacob Lestschinsky's statistics are the most generally accepted, but in the case of Brazil his information appears as unreliable as other, less scholarly sources. See Lestschinsky, De lage fun yidn in lateyn-amerikaner lender (The situation of Jews in Latin America) (New York: World Congress for Jewish Affairs, 1948), and "Jewish Migrations, 1840-1956," 1536-96.

50. Barbara Weinstein, The Amazon Rubber Boom, 1850-1920 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1983), 50-51, 259-60; Serebrenick and Lipiner, Breve história dos judeus no Brasil , 95. Haquitia is a dialect that mixes Spanish, Hebrew and Arabic and is principally spoken by Jews in Morocco. Ladino combines Spanish and Hebrew and is spoken by many other Sephardic Jews.

51. Isaiah Raffalovich (New York) to ICA Head Office (Paris), 8 July 1930, Séance du Conseil d'Administration (27 September 1930), 2:57, Archives of the Jewish Colonization Association, London.

52. Eulália Maria Lahmeyer Lobo, História do Rio de Janeiro: Do capital ao capital industrial e financeiro (Rio de Janeiro: IBMEC, 1978), 443-71.

53. Moritz von Hirsch was born in 1831. His grandfather Jacob had been granted the title of nobility in 1818 because of banking skills that had aided Bavaria's reigning family. See Maurice de Hirsch, "My Views on Philanthropy," North American Review 153 (July 1889), 2. See also S. Adler-Rudel, "Moritz Baron Hirsch," Leo Baeck Institute Yearbook 8 (1963), 45; and Howard Morley Sachar, The Course of Modern Jewish History , 2d ed. (New York: Dell Publishing Company, 1977), 510-18.

54. Theodore Norman, An Outstretched Arm: A History of the Jewish Colonization Association (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1985), 21. The word Jewish in popular Eastern European Yiddish was pronounced "idisheh" and was often transliterated as Idische . Thus the popular acronym for the Jewish Colonization Association was ICA.

55. Jewish Colonization Association, Jewish Colonization Association: Su obra en la república Argentina, 1891-1941 (Buenos Aires: ICA, 1941). See also Mark Freeman's documentary film The Yidishe Gauchos (Berkeley, Calif.: Fine Line Productions, 1989); and Jewish Colonization Association, Rapport de l'administration centrale au conseil d'adminstration pour l'année 1901 (Paris: Imprimerie R. Veneziani, 1902), Arquivo Histórico Judaico Brasileiro, Sõo Paulo.

56. Jewish Colonization Association, Le baron Maurice de Hirsch et la Jewish Colonization Association (à l'occasion du centenaire de la naissance du Baron de Hirsch (Paris: Imprimerie R. Veneziani, 1931), 14.

57. Ernesto A. Lassance Cunha, O Rio Grande do Sul: Contribuião para o estudo de suas condições econômicas (Rio de Janeiro: Imprensa Nacional, 1908), 253; Brazilian constitution of 24 February 1891, art. 72, no. 3.

58. Luiza H. Schmitz Kliemann, "A ferrovia gaúcha e as diretrizes de 'Ordem e progresso,' 1905-1920," Estudos Íbero-Americanos (Porto Alegre) 3:2 (December 1977), 189.

59. "Constituião política de 11 de julho de 1891 do estado de Rio Grande do Sul," part 4, "Garantias gerais de ordem e progresso no estado," art. 71, no. 7. See also Zilah C. Didonet, O positivismo e a constituição rio-grandense de 14 de julho de 1891 (Santa Catarina: Imprensa Universitária, 1977); and Ivan Lins Lima, História do positivismo no Brasil (Sõo Paulo: Editora Nacional, 1967).

60. For a full discussion of these colonies see Jeffrey Lesser, Jewish Colonization in Rio Grande do Sul, 1904-1925 (São Paulo: Centro de Estudos de Demografia Histórica de América Latina, Universidade de São Paulo, 1991); Isabel Rosa Gritti, "A imigraão judaica para o Rio Grande do Sul: A Jewish Colonization Association e a colonização de Quatro Irmãos" (master's thesis, Department of History, Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul, 1992); Leon Back, "Imigração judaica no Rio Grande do Sul," Enciclopédia rio-grandense (Canoas: Editora Regional, 1958) 5:273; Marlene Kulkes, ed., Histórias de vida: Imigração judaica no Rio Grande do Sul (Porto Alegre: Instituto Cultural Judaico Marc Chagall, 1989); and Moacyr Scliar, Caminhos da esperança: A presença judaica no Rio Grande do Sul (Porto Alegre: Riocell, 1990). A number of former colonists have also written about their experiences: Jacques Schweidson, Judeus de Bombachas e Chimarrão (Rio de Janeiro: José Olympio Editora, 1985); Martha Pargendler Faermann, A promessa cumprida (Porto Alegre: Metrópole, 1990); Eva Nicolaiewsky, Israelitas no Rio Grande do Sul (Porto Alegre: Editora Garatuja, 1975); and Frida Alexandr, Filipson: Memórias da primeira colônia judaica no Rio Grande do Sul (São Paulo: Editora Fulgor, 1967).

61. Love, Rio Grande do Sul , 18.

62. Eugenio Dahne, ed., Descriptive Memorial of the State of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil (Porto Alegre: Commercial Library, 1904), 29.

63. J. F. Camargo, Crescimento da populaão no estado de São Paulo e seus aspectos econômicos (São Paulo: University of São Paulo, 1952), 228.

64. Camargo, Crescimento da populaão , 228.

65. Camargo, Crescimento da populaão , 228.

66. Jean Roche, A colonizaão alemã e o Rio Grande do Sul (Porto Alegre: Editora Globo, 1969); Lucy Maffei Hutter, Imigração italiana em São Paulo, 1880-1889 (São Paulo: Instituto de Estudos Brasileiros, 1972).

67. On the Japanese in Brazil, see, among others, Arlinda Rocha Nogueira, A imigraão japonesa para a lavoura cafeeira paulista, 1908-1922 (São Paulo: Instituto de Estudos Brasileiros, 1973); and Patrick N. Fukunaga, "The Brazilian Experience: The Japanese Immigrants during the Period of the Vargas Regime and Its Immediate Aftermath" (Ph.D. diss., University of California at Santa Barbara, 1983).

68. For more on the anti-Asian movements, see Alexander Saxton, The Indispensable Enemy: Labor and the Anti-Chinese Movement in California (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971); Roger Daniels, The Politics of Prejudice: The Anti-Japanese Movement and the Struggle for Japanese Exclusion (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1962); and Evelyn Hu-DeHart, "Racism and Anti-Chinese Persecution in Sonora, Mexico, 1876-1932," Amerasia Journal 9:2 (fall/winter 1982), 1-28.

69. Levy, "O papel da migraão internacional," 72.

70. John Higham, Strangers in the Land: Patterns of American Nativism, 1860-1925 (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1955), 310.

71. Revista de Imigraão e Colonização 1:4 (October 1940), 641-42. This figure does not include Russian immigration, which, as a result of the Russian Revolution, was restricted by the Soviet government. Between 1914 and 1923 Eastern European immigration to Brazil was less than 2 percent of the total.

72. Extract of report of HM Consul, São Paulo, to British Foreign Office, February 1927, FO 371/11,196 A2,074/2,074/6, p. 181, British Public Record Office, London.

73. Sir T. Vaughan (British consul, Kovno, Lithuania) to Sir Austen Chamberlain, 29 December 1927, FO 371/13,270 W70/70/59, p. 183, PRO-L.

74. The historiography on Eastern Europeans in Brazil uniformly ignores the large numbers of Jewish immigrants. See, for example, Paul H. Price, "The Polish Immigrant in Brazil: A Study of Immigration, Assimilation and Acculturation" (Ph.D. diss., Vanderbilt University, 1950); Edmundo Gardolinski, Escolas da colonizaão polonesa no Rio Grande do Sul (Porto Alegre: Escola Superior de Teologia São Lourenço de Brindes, 1976); Alberto Victor Stawinski, Primórdios da imigração polonesa no Rio Grande do Sul (1875-1975 ) (Porto Alegre: Escola Superior de Teologia São Lourenço de Brindes, 1976).

75. Samuel L. Baily, "Chain Migration of Italians to Argentina: Case Studies of the Agnonesi and Sirolesi," Studi Emigrazione 19 (March 1982), 73; John S. MacDonald and Leatrice D. MacDonald, "Chain Migration, Ethnic Neighborhood Formation and Social Networks," Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly 13:42 (1964), 82-95.

76. Cecilia Razovsky, "The Jew Re-Discovers America: Jewish Immigration to Latin American Countries," Jewish Social Service Quarterly 5:2-3 (December 1928-March 1929), 127.

77. This was one result of the coming of age of the children of the earlier immigrant generation. See Michael M. Hall, "New Approaches to Immigration History," in New Approaches to Latin American History , ed. Richard Graham and Peter H. Smith (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1974).

78. The Japanese immigrant, however, was to fit into global power politics in a way that other immigrant groups did not, enjoying the protection and moral support of a powerful regime that saw each Japanese immigrant success story as an example of Japanese national superiority.

79. A sophisticated and full literature has emerged on the role of Germany in Brazil's foreign policy. Outstanding examples include Stanley Hilton's Brazil and the Great Powers, 1930-1939: The Politics of Trade Rivalry (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1975); Gerson Moura's Autonomia na dependência (Rio de Janeiro: Nova Fronteira, 1980); and Ricardo Seitenfus's O Brasil de Getúlio Vargas e a formaão dos blocos: 1930-1942 (São Paulo: Companhia Editora Nacional, 1985).

80. Roberto Gambini, O duplo jogo de Getúlio Vargas: Influência americana e alemã no Estado Novo (São Paulo: Editora Símbolo, 1977).